Spain in Crisis: Regeneration, Reform, and the Road to the Second Republic (1902-1931)
Regeneration and Political Revisionism: The Crises of 1909 and 1917
In 1902, Alfonso XIII came to the throne, initiating the second phase of the Restoration.
Dynastic Reformism
- The leader of the Conservatives: Antonio Maura.
- The leader of the Liberals: José Canalejas.
Politicians, influenced by regenerationism, undertook reform projects. Antonio Maura’s government, between 1907 and 1909 (known as the “long government”), staged a reform he called the “revolution from above.” It aimed to regenerate the system with a new political class supported by the bourgeoisie, establishing a strong and effective state capable of ousting the caciques. An electoral reform in 1907 failed to end corruption and democratize the political system, but it made electoral fraud more difficult. In social policy, he created the National Institute of Forecasting and the Sunday Rest Law and demanded more independence from the executive against the crown.
In 1910, José Canalejas formed a new Liberal government. He intended to modernize political life and limit the power of the Church (reforming its funding and separating Church and State). The Holy See’s refusal of these reforms led to the “Padlock Law” in 1910. In social policy, he replaced the consumption tax with a progressive income tax. The draft law was amended, making military service mandatory in wartime. Laws were passed to improve working conditions, especially for women. He continued the policy of rapprochement with Catalan nationalists (initiated by Antonio Maura) and elaborated the Law of Associations, which enabled the union of associations. This law was passed just before Canalejas was assassinated in 1912, succeeded by Eduardo Dato.
Strengthening of the Opposition
Opposition forces renewed their ideologies, organizational forms, and leaders.
Republicanism was the main opposition force. The Republican Union, formed in 1903, united different republican groups under the leadership of Nicolás Salmerón. It achieved significant success in that year’s elections. Internal differences led to a split, forming the Radical Party, led by Alejandro Lerroux. His party, with its demagogic, anti-clerical, and revolutionary approach, influenced groups in Barcelona. Following the Tragic Week, he toned down his rhetoric and moved to Madrid. A Reformist Party was also formed, headed by Melquíades Álvarez. In Valencia, Vicente Blasco Ibáñez promoted “Blasquismo,” a populist and anti-clerical movement.
Another significant opposition force was the labor movement, divided into two main branches: the socialist movement, represented by the PSOE and the General Union of Workers (UGT), and the anarchist movement, represented by the National Confederation of Labor (CNT). The Carlists were divided between the “Jaimists,” followers of Jaime III (son of Carlos VII) led by Juan Vázquez de Mella, and the fundamentalists led by Cándido Nocedal. The Catalan nationalist force comprised the conservative Regionalist League and the leftist Republican Nationalist Center. The Basque nationalist force (PNV) included the Basque Nationalist Communion, known as “Aberris,” within the PNV.
The Colonial Policy and the War in Morocco
The Algeciras Conference in 1906 established a Franco-Spanish protectorate in Morocco. Spain was granted a strip of North Africa, including the Rif, Ifni, Rio de Oro, and Spanish Guinea.
Economic benefits were obtained through mining and investments in railways. It also aimed to restore the prestige of the army.
The Tragic Week in Barcelona
Mobilization against the war began in the port of Barcelona when troops were to be shipped to Morocco. The riot lasted a week. Movements emerged to reject the social and cultural hegemony of the Church. On the 24th, a strike committee was formed, involving republicans, socialists, and anarchists. They called for a general strike on the 26th.
Political Consequences of the Tragic Week
- Opposition to Maura (“Maura, no!”). Alfonso XIII dissolved the Cortes and transferred the government to the Liberals (Canalejas).
- Republican and worker sectors joined the Nationalist Republican Federal Union.
- The Socialist Party was created, and Melquíades Álvarez formed the Reformist Party.
- Lerroux’s Republican Party weakened, and many defected to anarcho-syndicalism.
- Pablo Iglesias became the first socialist deputy.
Spain and the First World War
Spain adopted a neutral position, supported by most political forces except Lerroux’s radicals. There were strong arguments between pro-Allies and pro-Germans. The upper classes, the Church, and senior military officers favored the Central Powers, defending authority and conservative order. The more progressive sectors, including republicans, favored the Allied powers.
As a result, there was an economic expansion, supplying industrial and agricultural products. Increased demand led to higher prices, initiating an inflationary process. It had a strong speculative component. The working classes experienced a worsening of their living standards.
The Crisis of 1917
The Military Crisis
There was an excessive number of officers in relation to soldiers. War merits benefited the “Africanist” military. Soldiers had low wages. A military association, the “Juntas de Defensa” (Defense Committees), was formed. In their manifesto of June 1917, they blamed the government for the ills of the military and the country.
The Political Crisis
Eduardo Dato closed the Cortes and censored the press. The Parliamentary Assembly of Catalonia was held in Barcelona. When the assembly met with all Spanish deputies and senators, it was dissolved by the Civil Guard.
Consequences of the Crisis of 1917
Successive coalition governments were formed. The most important was the “National Government,” led by Maura, which included conservatives, liberals, and the Regionalist League. Differences made any reform process impossible. The Communist Party of Spain was organized. In Barcelona, the strike at the “La Canadiense” power company crippled the city for a month and a half.
The Years of “Pistolerismo”
Gunmen were hired to assassinate labor leaders and entrepreneurs. The “Ley de Fugas” (Escape Law) allowed the police to shoot detainees in the event of an attempted escape.
The Problem of Morocco
Spain resumed its military actions. General Manuel Fernández Silvestre advanced around the Rif region from Melilla. Abd el-Krim’s forces attacked Annual, resulting in 13,000 casualties, including General Silvestre. The cause was the poor organization of the army.
Impact of the Disaster of Annual
Public opinion was inflamed, and a parliamentary process was initiated to determine military responsibilities. The “Picasso File” never reached the Cortes, as Primo de Rivera’s coup took place days before the scheduled discussion.
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera and the Path to the Second Republic
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera
Causes of the Coup
Several factors explain why the military dictatorship began to be viewed as a solution to the crisis by the gentry, much of the middle classes, and the Army:
- Army discontent after the Disaster of Annual and the desire to avoid the consequences of the Picasso File for some important generals, including General Dámaso Berenguer.
- The rise of peripheral nationalisms and the growing influence of republicans and the labor movement.
- The victory of fascism in Italy after the March on Rome in 1922 and the rise of Mussolini.
The Coup of 1923
Miguel Primo de Rivera, Captain General of Catalonia, rebelled on September 13, 1923. The coup had the immediate understanding and support of King Alfonso XIII.
The rebels declared a state of war, suspended constitutional guarantees, and dissolved the Cortes. The regime of the 1876 Constitution was replaced by a military dictatorship amid popular indifference and with little resistance.
Military Directory (1923-1925)
After the coup, Primo de Rivera became the sole minister, advised by a Military Directory. The new government represented the same power bloc that had dominated the country during the Restoration: the oligarchy of landowners and industrialists.
The Military Directory took prompt steps:
- Prohibition of the Catalan flag and anthem and restriction of the Catalan language to the private sphere.
- A “tough” policy on all matters relating to public order.
- Formation of the Patriotic Union, the single party under the leadership of a soldier, following the pattern set by Mussolini’s fascist Italy.
The end of the war in Morocco brought popularity to the dictator.
Civil Directory (1925-1930)
In late 1925, a civilian government headed by Primo de Rivera replaced the Military Directory.
The dictatorship attempted institutionalization. In 1927, a National Consultative Assembly was formed, consisting mostly of Patriotic Union members elected by limited suffrage. Primo de Rivera again followed the Italian model, in this case, the Grand Council of Fascism. The Assembly quickly failed in its attempt to draft a basic law to act as the Constitution of the dictatorship.
He also imitated the social model of Italian fascism, establishing the Corporative Labor Organization, a kind of union that tried to arbitrate between employers and workers. Again, the attempt to institutionalize the regime failed.
Opposition to the Dictatorship and the Fall of Primo de Rivera
Opposition to the dictatorship encompassed a wide political spectrum: liberals, conservatives, republicans, socialists, anarchists, intellectuals, and the student movement.
A key element was the growing discontent within the army due to Primo de Rivera’s arbitrariness.
Alfonso XIII became increasingly isolated. Many soldiers began to look favorably on republican chances. Even the CNT supported the conspiracy to bring about the Republic.
On December 15, 1930, a republican military uprising in Jaca failed. Its leaders, Fermín Galán and Ángel García Hernández, were tried and executed. Most of the Revolutionary Committee was arrested amid growing anti-monarchist sentiment.
Berenguer resigned on February 14, 1931, giving way to a new government headed by Admiral Juan Bautista Aznar. The new cabinet called for municipal elections on April 12, aiming for a gradual return to constitutional legality.