Spain in the 19th Century: Political Turmoil and Economic Shifts

Posted on Jan 20, 2025 in History

Political Crisis, Carlos IV and Revolutionary France

Revolutionary Changes and Their Limitations

In Spain in the 19th century, there were political, economic, and social changes.

  • Absolutism – A liberal system emerged because of civil wars and the loss of the colonial empire.
  • Population – Grew, and the economy was modernized, albeit slowly.
  • Class-based society – Was established, centered on wealth.

The Reign of Carlos IV (1788-1808)

When Carlos IV acceded to the throne, the political crisis of the Ancien Régime began, influenced by the French Revolution. Spain closed its borders and war was declared with France after the execution of Louis XVI. France invaded the Basque Country and Navarra, which led Godoy to sign the Peace of Basel (1795). After the Treaty of Fontainebleau, Godoy and Napoleon allied. This treaty agreed to invade and divide up Portugal, which led to French troops entering Spain and conquering more territories because Napoleon tricked Godoy. That caused the Mutiny of Aranjuez in 1808, where there was a revolt against Godoy’s policies that led to Carlos IV demoting Godoy and abdicating the throne to his son, Fernando VII. Napoleon took advantage of the disagreements within the royal family and gave the throne to his brother, Joseph Bonaparte.

Formation of Ideological Groups

Joseph I Bonaparte reigned in Spain from 1808 to 1813. The political system stated that the King had executive power, could propose laws, and guaranteed rights for prisoners. Ideological groups:

  • Afrancesados (Nobility, clergy) – Accepted and supported the new monarchy.
  • Patriots (people, liberals) – Didn’t accept the foreign monarch, defended Fernando VII.

War of Independence & the Liberal Revolution (1808-1814)

The dethronement of the Bourbons and the invasion of French troops caused:

War of Independence

The French invasion led to the revolt of citizens on May 2nd, 1808. In the cities, they resisted and revolted against the French, and in the countryside, through guerrillas (citizens who fight against armies without being professionals) or surprise attacks.

In the first phase, the French conquered many cities until the first victory of Spain against the French in the Battle of Bailén, which was in an open field, where they started to recover their territory.

For another two years, other countries took advantage of Napoleon’s problems and defeated the French, so he was defeated and recognized Fernando VII as King of Spain and the Indies in the Treaty of Valençay (1813).

Cortes of Cádiz and Constitution of 1812

The patriots decided to create juntas that coordinated the war and undertook political and social reforms that the country needed. The Supreme Junta summoned the Cortes of Cádiz.

Later on, the Cortes were elected to carry out legal reforms and approve a constitution. They approved laws like freedom of the press and trade guilds. The Constitution of 1812 recognized individual rights like equality, sovereignty, and separation of powers. A liberal political system was established.

The Reign of Fernando VII: Absolutists Versus Liberals

Ferdinand VII (1784-1833) was the King of Spain during the Napoleonic wars. He was in power:

  • 1 year in 1808.
  • From 1814 until he died in 1833.

He was imprisoned for five years between reigns. His parents gave Fernando to Godoy, who was the Prince of Peace (his tutor). When he came to power, he annulled the Cádiz Constitution, dissolved the Cortes, reinstated absolutism, and abolished the free press.

Three Stages in the Reign (Second Reign 1814-1833)

  • Absolutist Sexennium (1814-1820) – Abolished the Constitution of 1812, annulling the work of the Cortes of Cádiz.
  • Liberal Triennium (1820-1823) – Fernando VII swore allegiance to the Constitution of Cádiz and accepted the work of the Cortes of Cádiz. In 1823, a French army, the ‘One Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis,’ invaded Spain and allowed the king to restore absolutism.
  • Ominous Decade (1823-1833) – Repression of the liberals. With the succession problem, Fernando VII’s daughter, Isabel, was born, and he repealed the law that prevented women from inheriting the throne. Carlos, brother of Fernando VII, didn’t accept it and received support from the absolutists.

Independence of the American Colonies

This happened during the end of Fernando VII’s reign. The process was advanced by the criollos, dissatisfied with political marginalization, high taxes, and social discrimination. Two stages:

  • First stage. Revolutionary juntas displayed tendencies that favored independence.
  • Second stage. Fernando VII refused to grant any autonomy to the colonies. Spain was defeated, and its colonies were reduced to Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.

Liberal Consolidation (1833-1874)

Isabel II (1833-1868)

Isabel II acceded to the throne at three years old. As she was a minor, the regency was given to her mother. The succession problem unleashed a civil war.

During Isabel II’s reign, the liberal regime was consolidated based on political parties. The reign was full of political instability driven by two liberal parties: the Moderate Party, representing the upper class, and the Progressive Party, representing the urban middle class. Each party tried to impose its ideas:

  • Moderate Decade – The Constitution of 1845 was imposed.
  • Progressive Biennium – The Constitution of 1856 was written but not published.
  • Last years of the reign – A new centrist party, the Liberal Union, emerged. New parties opposed the liberal regime, such as the Democrats, who advocated for universal suffrage for men, and the Republicans, who wanted to abolish the monarchy.

The Democrats, Republicans, Progressives, and the Liberal Union signed the Pact of Ostend to overthrow the queen and summon the Cortes.

Glorious Revolution

A new revolution prevailed, the Glorious Revolution, and the queen went into exile. A Provisional Government was formed and promulgated the Constitution of 1869. It recognized freedom of expression, freedom of the press, the right to meet and to associate, national sovereignty, separation of powers, and universal suffrage for men. Two periods:

  • Democratic monarchy
  • First Republic

Economic Modernization I

Population Growth

There was an increase in the Spanish population from 10.5 to 16.5 million citizens because of improvements in nutrition, with the introduction of maize and potatoes. Most of the citizens lived in the countryside.

When more modern industries emerged, many people moved to the cities, experiencing a rural exodus, especially to Catalonia, the Basque Country, and Madrid.

Agrarian Transformations

Abolition of the Feudal Regime

The Cortes of Cádiz decreed in 1811 that:

  • Jurisdictional manors – The public functions, like justice, would pass from the lord to the state.
  • Territorial manors – The lord would only obtain economic resources from private land (that belonged to the noble families).

Confiscation

Liberals wanted the amortized assets that the nobility and clergy had to be either confiscated or sold.

The first confiscation measures were approved by the Cortes of Cádiz and the Liberal Triennium. The process received its definitive push with the reign of Isabel II. The State confiscated:

  • Those assets and majorats, Mendizábal’s confiscation.
  • Ordered the sale of common lands, Confiscations of Madoz.

Economic Modernization II

This revolution developed slowly compared to some European countries for the following reasons:

  1. Low demand for industrial articles: The population wasn’t growing, and peasants didn’t have money.
  2. Lack of entrepreneurial spirit among the bourgeoisie: Instead of investing in industry, they invested in the purchase of properties.
  3. Technological gap and scarcity of raw materials: There were expensive exports of machines and resources.
  4. Political instability: There wasn’t a stable economic policy.

Main Industrial Sectors

  • Mining: Spain became an important mineral operator. Minerals were transported for use in factories.
  • Iron and steel industry: It began in Andalusia. Due to the lack of coal in the area, the industry was transferred to Asturias and the iron mines in the Basque Country.
  • Textile sector: Cotton production was centered in Catalonia. At first, the factories used hydraulic machines; later, they used steam engines.

Other Economic Sectors

Thanks to transport modernization, such as highways and railroads, and foreign capital, the following improved:

  • Trading system – Trade was better between provinces in Spain, but foreign trade was affected because of the loss of American colonies.
  • Finance and capitalism – Both grew, with the creation of public and private banks and stock markets in Madrid and Barcelona.

Class-Based Society

There was a new class-based society based on economic power:

Upper Class

  • Former nobility, formed by landowners, the richest group.
  • Bourgeoisie: Increased its power, this group was linked to industry and commercial and agrarian activities.

Middle Class

  • Characteristics: This group was not large, consisting of medium-sized agrarian landowners and, in the cities, government and army officials, professionals, artisanal workshop owners, and small merchants.
  • Social conflicts: Due to poor living conditions of the most unprivileged groups and low wages.
  • Labor movement: Industrial workers faced long working days, low wages, lack of insurance, exploitation of women and children, and poor living conditions.

Lower Class

Composed primarily of workers in manufacturing and service industries, peasants, and traditional rural workers. There were different groups:

  • Servants and sweatshops. Unskilled laborers performed many kinds of tasks, including domestic servants and individuals working in industries.
  • Family farmers. Rural farmers were also included in the lower class; farming had been a family enterprise until technology appeared.
  • More marriage. Legal marriages were common. In the home, women controlled family finances, domestic decisions, and religious instruction. Some delayed marriage.

Culture and Art I: Goya

Francisco de Goya y Lucientes was an important painter at the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. People called him “The first of the moderns.” Thanks to Goya’s developed own style, painting movements like these emerged:

  • Expressionism
  • Romanticism
  • Impressionism
  • Surrealism

His art is the beginning of contemporary painting; he is one of the great Masters of Art History and one of the most relevant Spanish artists. Goya was formed with great historical events such as the French Revolution, the struggle for national independence, and the movement for liberal reform.

He painted what he lived in his time; the artist’s works represent the darkness and fear of the world in which he lived. For example:

  • Duelo a garrotazos: It represents a confrontation between people from the same territory, for which it can represent the Spanish civil wars, but it can also represent the violence of the human being.
  • La familia de Carlos IV: Its style is Neoclassicism. Goya made this painting to represent the future and unknown princess of Asturias, who had not yet been chosen. This was painted for a room in the Royal Palace, whose decoration was being modified.
  • Fusilamientos: This work represents the executions by Napoleon’s army during the struggle of the Spanish people against the French. Thanks to this work, Goya became the precedent of Romanticism and Impressionism.
  • La maja vestida: It is one of the best-known works of Goya; it was painted in 1808. Its style is Romanticism. Goya tried to demonstrate in this painting that a woman’s intelligence and attitude can be more seductive than her nudity.

Culture and Art II: Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting

All the Romantic topics were carried out until the end of the reign of Isabel II.

Architecture in this Period

Each type:

  • Neo-Romanesque: Metropolis (Madrid), Basilica of Covadonga, and the Cathedral of Almudena (Madrid).

    We can relate it with its semi-circular arches for windows and doors, having massive walls with few windows, as well as having a large tower.

  • Neo-Gothic: Cathedral of Castellón.

    We can recognize this style by its pointed arches for windows, doors, and porches.

  • Neo-Mudejar: Plaza de España (Seville).

    We can identify this type with the use of soft materials and decorative geometric patterns that cover entire surfaces.

  • Classicist: Congress of Deputies of Madrid.

    This style is distinguished by its columns, rectangular windows, and symmetry.

Sculpture

Sculpture was poorly developed in Spain. Its most common forms were portraits and urban monuments.

  • This is El Ángel Caído, by Ricardo Bellver, in the Parque del Retiro. It is the only statue in the world dedicated to the devil.

Painting

In the paintings, they gave great importance to color, light, and movement. Some important artists were:

  • Eugenio Lucas Velázquez, most known as Velázquez. This is one of his paintings, Sermón de las mascaras.
  • Jenaro Pérez Villamil, he used to paint landscapes.
  • Federico Madrazo, he used to do historical paintings.

Realistic Painting

In the second half of the 19th century, Realism appeared. Realistic paintings focused on historical realism and history paintings.

In general, they have large pictures, sober in color, which means that they avoid using bright and vivid colors and rather look for sober colors that provide serenity without standing out too much.

Realistic paintings represent medieval events from the past, as well as from the Spanish Empire, or contemporary events, such as the War of Independence.

Some important realistic paintings were:

  • Presentación de Don Juan de Austria to Carlos V in Yuste, by Eduardo Rosales.
  • La rendición de Bailén, by José Casado de Alisal.

Andalusia During the Crisis of the Ancien Régime

War of Independence to the Glorious Revolution

Andalusians set up the Juntas de Defensa and the Junta Suprema Central (Cádiz, the last territory to resist the French). Guerrillas formed in Andalusia, and an army commanded by General Castaños was also organized and defeated the French in the Battle of Bailén (1808). The Cortes of Cádiz approved the Constitution of 1812. Fernando VII and Isabel II were involved.

Land Confiscations

In Andalusia, after the reigns, they confiscated lands. It favored the bourgeoisie and upper-middle class, wealth, and power. It ruined peasants, which led to the “Casabermeja” land issue, causing peasants to lean towards anarchism.

Industrialization Process

  • Mining: Exploited and occupied many places.
  • Steel: Prepared material of choice for elements like coal.
  • Textile: Produced cotton faster.
  • Railway Network: Effective management of products.