Spain in the Early 20th Century: Crisis & Transformation

Posted on Nov 2, 2024 in History

Spain in the Early 20th Century: Crisis and Transformation

Alfonso XIII and the Crisis of the Restoration – II

1. The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930) and the Fall of the Monarchy

A) The Coup of 1923
Causes of the Coup:
  • Effects of the Annual: The army was humiliated and criticized by the king, and public opinion called for ending the Moroccan War.
  • The rise of nationalism in Catalonia and the Basque Country worried the conservative right.
  • The division of the Liberal and Conservative parties and the rise of socialists and republicans alarmed the oligarchy and the military. They believed an authoritarian government could halt the growth of the labor movement and political instability.
Developments:

On September 13, 1923, Primo de Rivera issued a manifesto promising to end terrorism, separatist agitation, disorder, and the political use of the Moroccan War. The political and social opposition was weak. The king agreed to the coup and appointed Primo de Rivera chairman of the Directory, initiating a dictatorship that can be divided into two stages.

B) The Military Directory (1923-1925)
Basic Features of the Regime:

Primo de Rivera intended to establish a provisional military directorate. The king refused to reopen the courts. The Directory was an advisory body, as Primo de Rivera held executive power and a direct relationship with the monarch. The Military Directory lasted for the first two years of the dictatorship, until 1925, focusing on regeneration: ending the caciquismo system and creating a state nationalism.

Measures Against Caciquismo and for Public Order:
  • Caciquismo networks lost their power due to the suspension of parliamentary rule and elections and the drastic reform of local government implemented by the Directory.
  • Deputies and municipal councils were dissolved by decree, and municipal boards were created.
  • In late 1923, Calvo Sotelo prepared a proposal for the reform of local government through the Municipal Statute (1924) and the Provincial Statute (1925).
  • The goal was to sever the relationship between local networks and the use of the administration for partisan purposes.
  • The Directory implemented repressive measures against the CNT and extended the Catalan model of the somatén (a type of militia).
Measures Against Nationalist Regionalism:

The promotion of state nationalism clashed with peripheral nationalisms. Some sectors supported Primo de Rivera’s regime, but he abolished the Mancomunitat (Commonwealth of Catalonia) and tried to ban the Catalan language. This caused a gradual shift towards republicanism within Catalan nationalism.

Solution to the Moroccan Problem:

Initially, Primo de Rivera advocated for abandoning Morocco. However, the situation changed in 1924 when the Rif leader Abd el-Krim confronted the Spanish and French. This prompted a military alliance between Spain and France and the landing at Al Hoceima (September 1925), which resulted in Abd el-Krim’s defeat. The end of the war boosted the popularity of Primo de Rivera’s regime.

C) The Civil Directory (1925-1930)

The Civil Directory was formed in late 1925, replacing some military ministers with civilian ones. This transition revealed Primo de Rivera’s desire to remain in power.

The Political Basis of the Regime: Patriotic Union and the National Consultative Assembly

The dictatorship attempted to establish a new, fascist-inspired regime modeled after Mussolini’s Italy. However, the dictatorship faced increasing opposition after 1928, which ultimately led to its downfall.

Patriotic Union: A New Party

Primo de Rivera wanted a party different from the old ones. The Patriotic Union was born in 1924. It was conceived as a single party but ended up being a pressure group on the government.

National Consultative Assembly

The regime created a chamber of political representation (1927). It was a corporatist assembly composed of representatives of local institutions. It was a consultative body that depended on the government and was elected by indirect suffrage. It attempted to draft a constitution, but the process was halted in 1928.

National Economic Policy

Two main ideas guided the economic policy: state interventionism and economic nationalism. The novelty of the dictatorial regime was the intensification of state action. It regulated the market and created a National Economic Council, linking it to the regenerationist tradition of building a strong national economy.

Social Policy: Corporatism

Corporatist ideology shaped the organization of labor relations. The aim was to avoid labor unrest by involving the working classes in resolving employment-related conflicts. It was structured through the National Corporate Organization (1926), which included joint committees for each sector, organized in a pyramidal form. The UGT collaborated with the system, while the CNT was persecuted.

The Opposition to the Dictatorship and the Fall of Primo de Rivera

By 1928, diverse groups converged in their opposition to the dictatorship:

  • The old parties, who wanted to restore the Constitution of 1876, formed an opposition movement.
  • Within the army, the division between “Africanists” and “Peninsulars” damaged the prestige of the monarch and pushed some military sectors towards republicanism.
  • Catalan nationalism increasingly embraced republicanism, with figures like Francesc Macià from the Lliga Regionalista joining the opposition.
  • The regime faced opposition from the intellectual world, which leaned towards republicanism. The student protests were supported by Ortega y Gasset, among others.

In January 1930, Primo de Rivera resigned. The cause was the general and gradual withdrawal of support. Primo de Rivera only had the king’s backing, which he lost when the king accepted his resignation.

D) The Fall of the Monarchy (1930-1931)
The Governments of Berenguer and Aznar: Attempt to Return to 1876

The king appointed General Berenguer to form a semi-dictatorial, provisional government (Dictablanda) that sought to restore the Constitution of 1876 through elections. In January 1931, Berenguer was replaced by Admiral Aznar, who formed a monarchist government. The heirs of the Patriotic Union moved into the opposition, rejecting the parliamentary system.

The Republican Opposition and the Preparation of the Republic

In 1930, republicans formed new parties, including the right-wing Republican Action. In August, they signed the Pact of San Sebastián, a unity agreement against the monarchy, calling for the convening of a Constituent Assembly and autonomy for Catalonia. A Revolutionary Committee was formed, chaired by Niceto Alcalá-Zamora, which included members of old parties and military sectors.

On December 15, there was an unsuccessful pro-republican military uprising in Jaca. The execution of Captains Galán and García-Hernández boosted support for the republicans, and student and worker strikes accelerated the downfall of Berenguer’s government. Aznar called for local elections on April 12.

The Elections of April 1931

The results were interpreted as a referendum on the monarchy. Although the monarchists won more votes overall, the republicans triumphed in most major cities. Aznar’s government negotiated with republican leaders, leading to the abdication of Alfonso XIII and his departure from the country. An interim government took over, and the Second Republic was proclaimed on April 14.

2. Economic and Social Developments in the First Third of the 20th Century

The Traits of Economic Growth: The Spanish Startup to Modernization

Three key events drove this period: the crisis of 1898, World War I, and the accelerated socio-economic changes between 1914 and 1936.

Phases of Growth (5): slow growth, boom, crisis, global boom, and bust.

Economic Policy: protectionism and economic nationalism.

The Evolution of Agriculture
  • Decline in Importance: Despite some growth, agriculture’s overall importance in the Spanish economy declined. However, Spain remained largely agricultural and rural.
  • Problem of Land Ownership: Access to land for peasants remained a major issue. The Agrarian Reform Law (1932) attempted to address this but was suppressed in 1936.
  • Transformations (Increased Productivity):
    • Wheat production benefited from tariff protectionism.
    • Formal credit institutions for farmers were created (1925).
    • Water Policy: The regenerationist movement promoted the development of water resources. The dictatorship saw a boom in the creation of Hydraulic Confederations, but the construction of reservoirs and irrigation schemes was largely postponed until the 1950s.
    • Increased regional specialization in agricultural production.
The Industrial Deployment and Energy
  • Basic Features:
    • Tariff protectionism and state interventionism played a significant role.
    • Three industrial areas consolidated (Catalonia, Basque Country, and Asturias), alongside the rise of Madrid as a financial and managerial center.
    • Industrial diversification: development of both consumer goods and basic industries.
  • Communications and Transport:
    • Innovations in the press increased its influence.
    • The automotive and aerospace industries emerged, and the railway network was completed.
    • The telephone took off (1925).
    • Telegraphy and radio broadcasting began to develop.
  • Energy Sources:
    • Mining declined (except for coal in Asturias).
    • New energy sources emerged (hydroelectricity and oil).
  • External Trade and Finance:
    • Trade remained highly regulated, with tariffs inherited from the 19th century.
    • Spain had a semi-colonial trade balance deficit.
    • Banking: Private banking boomed, alongside the growth of the official bank, land banks, and the expansion of savings banks.
    • The Treasury and Public Debt: The Fernández Villaverde solution (1900) proved insufficient to address the ongoing deficit and debt. The tax system remained inadequate and unfair.
Social Trends
  • Transition to a modern demographic cycle.
  • Migration: Both overseas and internal migration continued, but Spain remained a predominantly rural country in 1936.
  • Urban Sprawl: Cities expanded moderately, often in a disordered manner, with limited planning for the working class.
  • Growth of the service sector.
  • Progress in literacy and schooling, especially during the Second Republic.
  • Progress of Labor and Business Associations:
    • Mass unions emerged: CNT and UGT.
    • Associations of businessmen and employers developed (from 1912), particularly in Catalonia, sometimes using violent methods.