Spain in the Early 20th Century: From Monarchy to Dictatorship
Spain in the Early 20th Century: The Monarchy of Alfonso XIII
The Disaster of ’98 and the Need for Regeneration
Spain began the 20th century reeling from the disaster of 1898. The gap between “official” and “real” Spain was evident, highlighting the need for political, economic, and social regeneration. A gradual industrial boom began, leading to the rise of an incipient middle class and proletariat. The political system, however, remained a fictional parliamentary system propped up by despotism and oligarchy. The introduction of universal suffrage in 1890 only made electoral fraud more apparent.
Alfonso XIII and the “Revolution from Above”
When Alfonso XIII came of age in 1902, the system of alternating political parties (turno pacífico) continued. He envisioned a “revolution from above” by assuming power and implementing regenerationist policies, including:
- Social reform
- Financial sanitation
- Educational reform
Opposition to the Turno System
The Carlists, Republicans, peripheral nationalist movements, and workers’ movements (anarchists and socialists) were excluded from the Cánovas system. Groups like the Lliga Regionalista and the Reformist Party emerged, and the labor movement grew, but none posed a significant threat to the established order.
The Maura Government (1907-1909)
Antonio Maura’s government attempted to implement a program of reform, including:
- “Mutual Approach” between the people and the state
- Electoral law of 1907 to end caciquismo (political bossism)
- Local Administration Law (failed due to opposition)
- Law of 1909: Right to strike and freedom of association
- Creation of the National Institute of Foresight (for social issues)
Maura’s decision to send more troops to Melilla in Morocco triggered the:
Tragic Week of Barcelona (1909)
Organized by socialists and anarchists, the Tragic Week was an anticlerical and anti-government uprising. It was harshly suppressed by the military, forcing Maura’s resignation.
Canalejas’ Liberalism (1909-1912)
José Canalejas, leader of the Liberal Party, represented the last hope of regeneration. His government’s main actions included:
- Replacing the consumption tax with a mandatory income tax
- Continuation of social reforms
- Law of Congregations (regulating religious orders)
- Draft law on mancomunidades (regional commonwealths)
Canalejas’ assassination by an anarchist in 1912 marked the definitive break of the turno pacífico and the “revolution from above.”
Crisis of the Parliamentary Monarchy
The breakdown of the turno system led to a crisis of the monarchy. Successive governments failed to address labor and economic problems. World War I erupted amidst a deep crisis, and Spain remained neutral. The war stimulated economic activity through the export of raw materials to belligerent countries, but the inability to increase production caused inflation and a decline in real wages. The economic changes favored the bourgeoisie while the proletariat and middle class suffered, fueling the growth of unions.
The Crisis of 1917
Spain experienced a major crisis in 1917, expressed in three sectors:
- Military Juntas: Disgruntled military officers organized juntas, demanding better conditions and protesting government neglect.
- Parliamentary Assembly: The parliamentary system was in decline, and Prime Minister Romanones ruled by decree, bypassing parliament. The opposition demanded a Constituent Assembly. Some parliamentarians formed the Assembly of Parliamentarians in 1917, but it lacked broad support and ultimately failed.
- Revolutionary General Strike: The labor movement, fueled by economic hardship and rising prices, launched a general strike in August 1917, aiming to overthrow the regime and establish a republic. The strike was largely peaceful, but the military suppressed it. The crisis of 1917 resulted in no significant reforms.
The Road to Dictatorship
After the crisis of 1917, the regime was weakened, and the system became unworkable. Governments of national concentration struggled with internal divisions and the disappearance of the turno system. The disaster of Annual in Morocco in 1921 further discredited the government and fueled resentment within the military, leading to the idea of a coup.
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)
On September 13, 1923, General Miguel Primo de Rivera led a coup that overthrew the government. His first actions included suspending the Constitution, dissolving Parliament, and forming a provisional military directory.
Political Action
Primo de Rivera’s program aligned with the spirit of regeneration and was initially welcomed by the population. The first stage of his government, the Military Directory (1923-1925), focused on establishing peace and order, suppressing terrorism, and reducing strikes. In foreign policy, he resolved the conflict in Morocco. The second stage, the Civil Directory (1925-1930), saw the military replaced by civilians, with policies aimed at ensuring the country’s development and progress. The Patriotic Union was created in 1924, and in 1927, the National Consultative Assembly was established, representing various classes and interests.
Morocco
Resolving the Moroccan conflict was crucial for the regime’s stability. Negotiations with the Riffians failed, leading to a joint Franco-Spanish landing in Al Hoceima in 1925, which resulted in a decisive victory. This allowed the dictatorship to consolidate its power.
Economic Policy
Primo de Rivera’s government implemented positive economic policies, including:
- Public finance reform: Increased state revenues without raising taxes. The budget achieved a surplus in 1927.
- Public works: A major dam construction plan, railway improvements, electrification of lines, and a “cheap housing” plan were implemented. Numerous public buildings were also constructed.
These policies benefited from the global economic boom. However, the dictatorship failed to address issues such as wealth redistribution, tax reform, and agrarian reform. Despite the positive balance, the devaluation of the peseta in the late 1920s triggered an economic crisis.
Social Policy
Primo de Rivera adopted a paternalistic approach to social policy:
- Protective labor legislation
- Development of the National Institute of Social Welfare
- Corporate Labor Code (1926): Regulated labor relations and established Joint Committees (arbitration bodies) and the Corporate Organization (collective representation).
Opposition to the Regime
Despite initial support, the regime faced opposition from intellectuals, students, and financiers. The government’s indifference to intellectual concerns and the economic depression of 1929 undermined its popularity. In January 1930, lacking support, Primo de Rivera resigned.
The Labor Movement
At the beginning of the century, only 5% of workers were unionized. The UGT and PSOE grew in the 1910s, and the CNT gained influence in Catalonia. The rise of these labor groups led to an increase in strikes. In 1919, the CNT spearheaded anarcho-syndicalist armed struggle. The Communist Party of Spain (PCE) split from the PSOE in 1921, but both the UGT and PSOE continued to grow. When Primo de Rivera’s coup occurred, the CNT and PCE opposed it, while the PSOE and UGT remained passive. Primo de Rivera attempted to pacify the labor movement through repression and outlawed the PCE and CNT. He adopted a different approach with the Socialists, attempting to win their support.
Downfall of the Monarchy
Following Primo de Rivera’s resignation, King Alfonso XIII appointed Dámaso Berenguer as Prime Minister. His government proved ineffective and resigned after disastrous municipal elections in April 1932. The King then relinquished power, paving the way for the establishment of the Second Spanish Republic.