Spain in the Early 20th Century: Politics and Social Change
Dynastic Reform and Opposition in Early 20th Century Spain
The new century coincided with a leadership crisis within the dynastic parties, with Antonio Maura (Conservative) and José Canalejas (Liberal) at the forefront. Maura led the government between 1903 and 1905, and again between 1907 and 1909. In 1910, the liberal José Canalejas formed a new government. Canalejas began negotiating the Law of Commonwealths, but his assassination at the end of 1912 ended his reformist project.
The Rise of Republicanism and Other Opposition Forces
Republicanism emerged as the main opposition force to the dynastic turn. The Republican Union was founded in 1903. Internal dissent led to a split, with Alejandro Lerroux founding the Radical Party. Socialism became the second major opposition force nationwide. The Carlists also underwent transformations.
Catalan Nationalism and the Regionalist League
The early years of the Regionalist League were challenging. The general workers’ strike of 1902 forced them to define themselves as a conservative, bourgeois force. Election losses provoked a crisis within the party, revealing internal ideological differences. The crisis erupted in 1904 following King Alfonso XIII’s visit to Barcelona when a group of League councilors boycotted the royal visit against party orders.
The League’s expansion was hindered by the emergence of Lerrouxist republicanism. Catalan Solidarity, the first major alliance of Catalan political forces, formed around nationalist claims. The League’s electoral successes and the presence of Catalan nationalist deputies in Congress were met with hostility from the Madrid government. The ideological differences within Catalan Solidarity soon surfaced, and the Tragic Week ultimately dispersed the movement.
The Tragic Week of 1909
Spanish actions in North Africa, particularly the decision by Maura’s government to send Catalan reservists to Morocco, sparked significant unrest. The unpopularity of the war and the conscription system led to a major protest in Barcelona on July 18. The revolt, which lasted a week, developed a strong anti-militarist character. Authorities responded by declaring a state of war and sending military reinforcements. The subsequent repression was severe.
The Commonwealth of Catalonia
The first official demand for regional autonomy was made in 1911 when the Barcelona Provincial Council approved a statement favoring the pooling of powers of the four Catalan provinces. Canalejas committed to advancing the project, but circumstances were unfavorable. Despite some support within the Conservative Party, the initiative faced opposition. Catalan nationalist parties launched a protest campaign, leading the new Conservative government to authorize the provincial pool for administrative purposes only.
The Commonwealth focused on two main areas: creating an infrastructure of public and administrative services and implementing an educational and cultural project.
The Crisis of 1917
Military Crisis
The army suffered from an excess of officers, and promotions based on merit in the war disproportionately benefited those serving in Africa. Mainland officers expressed their discontent, exacerbated by declining real wages. The Defense Committees demanded a wage increase and promotion based on seniority. The June 1917 Manifesto blamed the government for the ills of the army and the country.
Political Crisis
In response to the military protests, the Dato government suspended constitutional guarantees, closed Parliament, and imposed press censorship. The League realized that the struggle for state reform and autonomy might compromise the monarchy, which was not part of their plans.
Social Crisis
Labor unrest, fueled by declining wages, intensified. A significant strike movement in 1916 led the CNT and UGT to issue a joint manifesto urging government intervention to control prices. Tensions erupted in August 1917 when the UGT, supported by the PSOE, called a general strike. The strike had uneven success, and the government’s response was harsh, declaring martial law and using the army to repress the movement.
Decomposition of the Restoration System
In 1919, a strong strike movement began with the La Canadiense strike. Employers, organized in the Employers’ Federation, sought to curb union power, hiring gunmen to assassinate labor leaders. Employers also took advantage of the situation to address the decline in production following the end of World War I.
Gunmen controlled the streets of Barcelona, with over 800 attacks between 1917 and 1922, including the murders of prominent figures like the Count of Salvatierra and Prime Minister Eduardo Dato.
At the end of 1918, League leaders and the Commonwealth launched a campaign for autonomy. A delegation presented a proposal to the Courts of Madrid in November, but it was poorly received, triggering anti-Catalan sentiment. The hostility towards the proposal led the League to retract its autonomist demands and support the Madrid government.
Spanish authorities undertook military operations to consolidate their authority in North Africa. In 1921, General Silvestre launched a campaign in the Rif. African troops attacked, causing a massive retreat of Spanish troops, resulting in over 10,000 casualties and the loss of nearly all occupied territory. This became known as the Disaster of Annual.
The responsibility for the Disaster of Annual led to intense parliamentary debate, with Republicans and Socialists demanding drastic measures that implicated the king. However, the report on the disaster was never discussed in Parliament, as General Primo de Rivera’s coup d’état halted the process.
Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship
The first actions of the military junta demonstrated its dictatorial nature. The dictator’s initial promise to regenerate the country’s political life was soon replaced by a suspension of all electoral mechanisms. The Municipal Statute was enacted, provincial councils were dissolved, and their members were replaced by appointed officials.
Although inspired by Italian Fascism, a new party, the Patriotic Union, was created. During the early stages of the dictatorship, the focus was on the conflict in Morocco. In 1925, a new policy of collaboration with France led to military success.
The state played a significant role in economic development through public works, and a decree was passed to protect national industry by providing state aid to companies that could not compete internationally. Large monopolies, such as the telephone company, were also granted. This policy led to a noticeable increase in the budget deficit and a massive state debt, which by 1929 was 1914 times higher than in 1914.
The National Corporate Organization was created, based on joint committees with equal representation of employers and employees. In 1929, an International Exhibition was organized to attract Catalan economic forces to the dictatorship.
The initial consensus among conservative classes regarding the coup weakened over time. Alfonso XIII forced Primo de Rivera’s resignation in 1930. General Berenguer was tasked with replacing him, but the promised return to constitutional normality was so slow that it sparked public discontent.
In February 1931, a military monarchy headed by Admiral Aznar was established, with a commitment to hold elections, starting at the municipal level. These elections ultimately became a referendum against the monarchy.