Spain in the Late 19th Century: From Revolution to Restoration
The Revolutionary Sexenio (1868-1874)
Revolution of 1868
The dictatorial practices of Narváez, which weakened the monarchy of Isabella II, fueled discontent among intellectuals like Giner de los Ríos and Castelar, as well as liberal politicians and the military. The Pact of Ostend, an agreement between progressives and moderate liberals, aimed to overthrow the Queen. The bankruptcy of financial institutions in major Spanish cities triggered a political crisis, culminating in the Glorious Revolution of September 1868. Uprisings in Cadiz, Catalonia, Valencia, and Andalusia forced Isabella II into exile in France.
Provisional Government and the Constitution of 1869
Following Isabella’s departure, a provisional government led by General Serrano was formed. It comprised progressives and unionists who called for Constituent Cortes. Their program included abolishing conscription and consumption taxes. The Cortes, elected by universal suffrage, drafted a new constitution, approved in June 1869. It established a parliamentary monarchy with national sovereignty, limited the King’s power, and secured the independence of the judiciary. The Constitution also guaranteed freedom of education, residence, and religion.
Monarchy of Amadeo of Savoy
General Prim, tasked with finding a new monarch, selected Amadeo of Savoy. However, Prim was assassinated before Amadeo’s arrival, leaving a power vacuum. Amadeo faced instability due to disagreements between constitutional parties and radicals. He abdicated in February 1873, leading the Cortes to proclaim the First Republic.
The First Republic (1873-1874)
The First Republic lasted only ten months, with four different presidents. It saw two distinct phases: the Federal Republic (1873) and the Authoritarian Republic (1874). The Federal Republic, led by Pi i Maragall, aimed for church-state separation and the division of Spain into autonomous states. However, it faced the Cantonalist revolt in Cartagena, Alcoy, Granada, and Malaga, threatening Spain’s unity. The Authoritarian Republic, under General Pavia, aimed to restore order and quell the Cantonalist movement. General Serrano eventually seized power, paving the way for the Restoration.
The Restoration (1874-1931)
Alfonso XII and the Constitution of 1876
Antonio Cánovas del Castillo orchestrated the return of Alfonso XII, son of Isabella II, as King. Alfonso’s reign brought relative calm and stability. Cánovas’s ideology, based on traditional monarchy and constitutional government, shaped the Restoration. The Constitution of 1876 established a constitutional monarchy with shared sovereignty between the King and the Cortes. It formalized Catholicism while allowing freedom of religion.
Cánovas’s Political System
Cánovas’s system was based on a two-party system: the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party, excluding Carlists and Republicans. However, this was a facade, as the King ultimately chose which party formed the government. Electoral manipulation became commonplace, ensuring the dominance of the oligarchy. This undermined the democratic aspect of the regime.
Regency of Maria Cristina
Following Alfonso XII’s death in 1885, his wife, Maria Cristina of Habsburg, became regent until their son, Alfonso XIII, came of age. Maria Cristina proved to be an effective ruler. The Pact of Pardo, an agreement for the rotation of parties in power, ensured political stability during this period.
Society of the Restoration
Spain’s economy during the Restoration saw slow but steady industrial growth. Industrial centers like Catalonia, Asturias, and the Basque Country experienced population growth. The rest of the country remained predominantly agricultural, controlled by the powerful oligarchy. Social movements emerged, including the formation of the PSOE and the UGT trade union. Rural unrest, such as the Black Hand in Andalusia, and anarchist terrorism in cities like Barcelona, challenged the established order.
Economic Development and Loss of Colonies
The Restoration saw progress in heavy industry, railway expansion, and the development of trade. However, agriculture suffered, requiring wheat imports. The loss of colonies in 1898, following the Spanish-American War, led to a shift towards protectionism. The repatriation of Spanish capital and the growth of sugar beet cultivation were positive developments.
Crisis of 1898
The Crisis of 1898, marked by the loss of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, was a turning point for Spain. It exposed the weaknesses of the Restoration system and led to a period of reflection known as Regenerationism. This movement aimed to address Spain’s problems and modernize the country. With a mix of dismay and hope, Spain entered the 20th century.