Spain: Regency of María Cristina (1885-1902)
The Regency of María Cristina (1885-1902)
Following the death of Alfonso XII in 1885, his wife, María Cristina, assumed regency. Alfonso XII’s reign had seen political stability, the end of the Carlist War, and a temporary resolution to the Cuban issue with the 1878 Pact of Zanjón. The system established by Cánovas del Castillo and Práxedes Mateo Sagasta continued under María Cristina’s regency. The 1876 Constitution, which marked the beginning of the Restoration period (starting in 1875), remained in effect. During this time, the Liberal Party implemented several reforms, including the Commercial Code (1885), the Law of Associations (1887), the Civil Code (1889), the establishment of juries, and early laws regarding child labor, accidents, and women’s rights. Universal suffrage was introduced in 1890. However, elements of political manipulation persisted.
The Party System
The ruling party was often considered weakened. The incoming government would call elections, but the results were often manipulated (“made”) through caciquismo (pre-allocation of seats by the Minister of the Interior). This involved the provincial governors, who acted as intermediaries, ensuring a majority for the ruling party and a small number for other parties.
The governors worked with a network of caciques (local political bosses) whose power stemmed from their control over local administration. The caciques delivered votes to the party in power in exchange for favors for themselves and their families.
Rigging and manipulation of election results were common, especially in rural areas.
Opposition to the System
Official Spain was disconnected from the realities of the country. The system designed by Cánovas was closed and exclusionary.
Carlism
After their military defeat in 1876 and the exile of Carlos VII, Carlism transformed into a primarily ideological movement concentrated in the Basque Country and Navarre, regions with strong Catholic traditions. Divisions emerged within Carlism:
- Fundamentalists: Formed the Traditionalist Party, emphasizing Catholicism, tradition, and anti-liberalism.
- Neo-Catholics: Favored political engagement and founded the Catholic Union, which later joined the Conservative Party.
Carlism persisted into the 20th century.
Republicanism
Initially a significant opposition force, it fragmented into smaller groups around established leaders.
- Radicals (led by Ruiz Zorrilla): Established the Progressive Republican Party and advocated armed struggle, leading several insurrections.
- Unionists (led by Nicolás Salmerón): Supported territorial and political unity and liberal principles, representing a segment of the bourgeois intelligentsia.
- Federalists (led by Pi i Maragall): Advocated federalism.
- Possibilists (led by Emilio Castelar): Joined the Liberal Party, prioritizing law and order.
In 1893, Federalists and Unionists, favoring peaceful political action, united to form Republican Unity.
The Workers’ and Farmers’ Movement
This movement gained momentum during the Restoration, aided by freedoms of association, assembly, and expression.
Anarchism
Spread by Giuseppe Fanelli around 1879. The Anarchist Federation was founded in 1881, attracting figures like Pío Baroja, Ramiro de Maeztu, and Azorín. Anarchist proposals included:
- Rejection of all forms of power and absolute individual freedom.
- Elimination of leadership, the state, and its institutions.
- Egalitarianism and abolition of private property.
Anarchists advocated violent revolution and “propaganda by the deed.” Notable acts of violence included the 1883 attack on Martínez Campos and the assassination of Cánovas in 1897.
Socialism
Pablo Iglesias founded the Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE) in 1879 and later the General Union of Workers (UGT). Socialist principles included:
- Abolition of private property.
- Emancipation of the working class.
- Social revolution and opposition to the bourgeois state.
- Dictatorship of the proletariat.
The PSOE did not gain a parliamentary seat until 1910.
The Rise of Peripheral Nationalism
Regionalist and nationalist movements emerged in Catalonia, the Basque Country, Galicia, Valencia, and Andalusia. This rise of nationalism, linked to Romanticism, reflected the interests of the petty bourgeoisie.
Peripheral Nationalisms
Catalan Nationalism
The Renaixença, beginning in the 1830s, was a literary and cultural movement focused on reviving the Catalan language. In 1891, the Unió Catalanista was formed, a conservative and Catholic group without separatist aims. In 1901, the Lliga Regionalista emerged, a conservative, Catholic, and bourgeois party advocating political autonomy and defending the economic interests of Catalan industry. Its social base was the middle and upper classes.
Basque Nationalism
The abolition of the Basque fueros (regional privileges) and rapid industrialization led to the rise of a powerful industrial and financial bourgeoisie. The Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) was founded in 1895, advocating for the independence of Euskadi. Its ideology included radical anti-Spanish sentiment, an emphasis on Basque ethnicity and racial purity, religious fundamentalism (“God and Old Laws”), and the promotion of Basque language and cultural traditions.
The PNV’s influence was strongest among the small and middle bourgeoisie and in rural areas, particularly in Vizcaya and Guipúzcoa, with less impact in Álava and Navarre.
Other Nationalisms
Galician nationalism was weaker and developed later. The Rexurdimento, a cultural movement within the context of late Romanticism, aimed at the development of the Galician bourgeoisie.
Valencian nationalism was also relatively weak and late in developing.
Andalusian nationalism sought autonomy for the region.