Spain: Reign of Charles IV and the War of Independence (1788-1814)
The Reign of Charles IV (1788-1808)
During the reign of Charles IV, power was entrusted to Manuel Godoy. Following the execution of Louis XVI, Spain declared war on France, resulting in defeat and subordination to France under the Peace of Basel. The Pact of San Ildefonso was signed with France, and battles ensued against Britain, including the battles of San Vicente, Cape St. Vincent, and Trafalgar, further deepening Spain’s financial crisis. Godoy’s tax increases to address the crisis faced widespread opposition from the nobility and clergy. Meanwhile, the actions of Fernando VII stirred peasant revolts and riots.
The Treaty of Fontainebleau and the Aranjuez Riot
In 1807, Godoy signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, allowing Napoleon’s troops to enter Spain to invade Portugal. The troops positioned themselves in strategic Spanish cities. On March 18, 1808, the Aranjuez riot erupted, demanding Godoy’s dismissal and Charles IV’s abdication in favor of Fernando VII. While successful, this marked a severe crisis for the Spanish monarchy, leading Charles IV to appeal to Napoleon for help.
Napoleon’s Intervention and the War of Independence
Napoleon summoned Charles IV and Fernando VII to Bayonne, where he forced both to abdicate, placing his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the Spanish throne. This act, coupled with Napoleon’s Bayonne Statute aimed at dismantling the old regime, sparked widespread resistance. The War of Independence began on May 2, 1808, when the people of Madrid attempted to prevent the royal family’s departure for Bayonne. While the uprising was suppressed, it ignited similar revolts across Spain, leading to the formation of defense boards to fill the power vacuum.
The War’s Progression
The War of Independence unfolded in three stages. The first stage saw Spanish control in some areas, hindering French advances. The second stage witnessed a French counteroffensive, leading to the occupation of much of Spain. However, spontaneous guerilla movements, composed of diverse individuals, harassed and weakened the French forces. This resistance, coupled with Napoleon’s Russian campaign and the victory at the Battle of Arapiles under General Wellington, ushered in the third stage. The Treaty of Valençay restored Fernando VII to the throne in 1814.
Ideological Currents and Consequences
The war fostered various ideological currents, including those favoring Joseph I, traditionalists, Enlightenment thinkers, and liberals. The war’s consequences included widespread death and destruction, economic disruption, and the attempted independence of American colonies.
The Cortes of Cádiz and the Constitution of 1812
Amidst the war, the Central Junta convened the Cortes of Cádiz in 1810 to determine Spain’s future. Distrustful of absolutism after Charles IV’s reign, the Cortes, with a strong liberal presence, adopted national sovereignty and drafted a constitution. The Constitution of 1812, known as “La Pepa,” established a constitutional monarchy with a unicameral legislature, recognized individual rights, and implemented various reforms, including tax reform, the abolition of the Inquisition, and freedom of the press. However, upon his return, Fernando VII rejected the constitution and reinstated absolutism.
Legacy of the Constitution
Despite its short-lived implementation, the Constitution of 1812, drawing inspiration from Enlightenment thinkers like Rousseau and Montesquieu, became a cornerstone of Spanish liberalism and influenced subsequent liberal constitutions.