Spain: Restoration, Crisis & Second Republic (1874-1931)
The Restoration: Cánovas’ Political System
Based on the conservative Constitution of 1876, this system positioned the monarch as a moderator between political parties. Supported by the army and the upper classes, its goals were internal stability and order. It aimed to:
- End the army’s influence in politics.
- Secure peace after the Carlist War of 1876 (and the abolition of privileges).
- Resolve the conflicts in Cuba and the Philippines with the Peace of Zanjón (1878).
The government was characterized by bipartisanship between Conservatives (Cánovas) and Liberals (Sagasta), alternating power peacefully (6 and 4 years respectively). However, the opposition (Carlists, Republicans, Nationalists, and workers) held no power. Corruption and electoral fraud (rigging and caciquismo) were rampant.
National and Regional Movements
These movements challenged the centralism of Spanish liberalism, advocating for autonomy. Emerging as cultural movements focused on restoring traditions and language, they gained political power after the Crisis of 1898. Key movements include:
- Catalonia: Beginning with the Renaixença cultural movement, it evolved politically under Almirall and the Bases de Manresa, consolidating with the Regionalist League.
- Basque Country: A response to the abolition of the fueros (traditional laws), it started as a movement defending tradition and solidified with the PNV (Basque Nationalist Party).
- Galicia: Less prominent in this period.
Other minor movements emerged in Aragon, Andalusia, and Valencia.
Overseas Conflicts
Cuba
Conflict arose from political inequality between Spaniards and Cubans, slavery, and protectionism hindering Cuba’s economic development. Spain’s resistance to reforms led to calls for autonomy and independence, culminating in the armed insurrection of 1895 (Grito de Baire). Key periods include:
- 1895-1897: Military campaigns and repression under Weyler.
- 1897-1898: Political concessions granting autonomy.
- 1898: Spanish-American War and Spain’s defeat.
Philippines
Fueled by figures like José Rizal and the Katipunan, an armed insurrection began. The US intervened, leading to Spain’s defeat in Cavite.
Crisis of 1898
The events in Cuba and the Philippines triggered a political crisis. The turnismo system continued, but an ideological and moral crisis emerged, leading to critical self-reflection in Spain and reinforcing nationalist sentiments. A need for regeneration and renewed political and social life became apparent.
The Second Republic (1931-1939)
On April 14, 1931, Alfonso XIII went into exile. Niceto Alcalá-Zamora became interim president, and a Constituent Assembly was convened. Numerous political parties existed:
- Left: CNT (illegal), Communist Party of Spain (PCE), Socialist Party (PSOE – Marxist and moderate), Republican Left (IR).
- Center: Radical Republican Party, Liberal Republican Right.
- Right: CEDA, Spanish Phalanx of JONS, Spanish Renewal, and Traditionalist Communion (Carlists).
Reforms
- Catalonia: Desire for autonomy led to a Statute of Autonomy approved by the Cortes, proclaiming the Catalan Republic.
- Agrarian Measures: Forced Tillage Decree (required landowners to cultivate their land and provide jobs), Municipal Boundaries Decree (prioritized registered workers), accident insurance, and the 8-hour workday.
- Education: Aimed to eliminate illiteracy and promote secular education.
- Military: Sought a more efficient and moderate army, subject to civilian power. Retirement offers with full pay were made, but not fully implemented, leading to opposition within the military.