Spain: Restoration to Civil War (1874-1939)
Spain: Restoration to Civil War
The Restoration and the Crisis of ’98
The Return of the Bourbons
In 1874, supporters of the monarchy offered the crown to Alfonso de Borbón, son of Isabel II. Guided by Cánovas del Castillo, Alfonso issued a manifesto from the Sandhurst Military Academy, accepting the offer. He arrived in Madrid in 1875, reigning as Alfonso XII.
The Political System of the Restoration
Cánovas aimed to establish a system guaranteeing authority and stability. Authority resided with the king, while stability relied on the 1876 Constitution and the alternating rule of the Conservative and Liberal parties.
Corruption and Opposition
The peaceful rotation of power between Liberals and Conservatives involved manipulated elections controlled by local bosses (caciques). This corruption fueled opposition from Republicans, Nationalists, and the labor movement (anarchists and Marxists, including the PSOE and UGT).
The Regency of Maria Cristina
Alfonso XII died in 1886, leaving his pregnant wife, Maria Cristina, as regent until their child, the future Alfonso XIII, reached adulthood. The Pact of El Pardo maintained the two-party system.
The Reign of Alfonso XIII
The Beginning of the Reign
Alfonso XIII came of age in 1902. Rapid urban growth due to rural exodus marked this period. New political leaders like Antonio Maura (Conservative) and José Canalejas (Liberal) emerged. The Tragic Week in Barcelona, a violent uprising against troop deployments to Morocco, marked a major crisis.
The Crisis of 1917
Though neutral in World War I, Spain felt its impact. The crisis of 1917 combined military deficiencies exposed by the war, political tensions with Catalan demands for autonomy, and a general strike fueled by rising profits and stagnant wages.
War in Morocco
Imperial ambitions led to a Spanish colony in Morocco, meant to offset the humiliation of the 1898 disaster. Clashes with local tribes escalated into open war, culminating in the disastrous Annual campaign led by General Fernández Silvestre.
Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship
The Restoration system, weakened by crises, proved incapable of addressing societal problems. On September 13, 1923, Miguel Primo de Rivera, Captain General of Catalonia, launched a coup supported by Alfonso XIII. The dictatorship had two phases: the Military Directory and the Civil Directory.
The Second Republic
Establishment and Reforms
On April 14, 1931, the Second Republic was proclaimed. A provisional government held elections for a constituent assembly, resulting in a center-left victory (PSOE as the largest party). A new constitution was adopted on December 9. Niceto Alcalá-Zamora became president, and Manuel Azaña became prime minister, implementing reforms including autonomy statutes, land reform, army reform, and addressing the religious question. These reforms faced opposition from affected groups, culminating in General Sanjurjo’s failed coup in 1932.
Radical and CEDA Governments
The 1933 elections gave victory to the right-wing CEDA and the Radical Party. CEDA joined the government in October 1934, prompting a strike called by PSOE leaders like Largo Caballero, who feared CEDA aimed to dismantle the Republic. This escalated into the Revolution of 1934.
The Triumph of the Popular Front
Harsh repression of the 1934 revolution and corruption scandals weakened the Radical-CEDA government. The Popular Front won the February 1936 elections, and Azaña replaced Alcalá-Zamora as president.
The Civil War: Origins and Development
Military Uprising
The Popular Front’s victory fueled opposition from sectors that had opposed the First Republic, particularly the army and landowners. Right-wing groups like the National Bloc and the Spanish Phalanx gained prominence. Street clashes intensified. The assassination of Lieutenant Castillo, followed by the retaliatory killing of Calvo Sotelo (leader of the National Bloc), triggered a coup led by General Mola. The army revolted in Morocco on July 17, 1936.
International Context
The Civil War coincided with the rise of fascism and democratic appeasement. The League of Nations chose non-intervention. Italy and Germany aided the rebels, while the Soviet Union provided advisors and arms. International Brigades of volunteers also supported the Republic.
Military Developments
General Franco assumed command of the better-equipped Army of Africa. German and Italian air support helped transport these troops to mainland Spain. Rebel forces advanced towards Madrid, but the Republican defense held during the Battle of Madrid. Key subsequent events included the Northern Campaign (rebel capture of Bilbao, Santander, and Asturias), the Battle of Teruel, the Battle of the Ebro (a failed Republican offensive), and the fall of Madrid, marking the war’s end on April 1, 1939.
The Civil War: Political Changes and Consequences
Republican Political Developments
In late summer 1936, Socialist Largo Caballero became prime minister. Challenges included forming a regular army, securing supplies, and managing disunity among Republican factions. Clashes between government forces and anarchists in Barcelona highlighted this disunity. Manuel Azaña remained president throughout the conflict.
Nationalist Political Developments
The rebels called themselves “Nationalists” and formed a military junta. General Franco became Generalissimo and head of state in October 1936. In April 1937, all political forces merged into the single party: FET y de las JONS (Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS).
Consequences of the War
The war resulted in significant demographic losses (around one million people) and severe economic damage. Repression occurred on both sides, with summary executions and disappearances in the Republican zone, and systematic elimination of opponents in the Nationalist zone.