Spain & the Napoleonic Wars: Crisis, Conflict & Resistance (1789-1814)
The Crisis of the Old Regime (1789-1808)
The French Revolution of 1789 triggered a crisis in Spain during the reign of Charles IV. Dismissals of ministers and reliance on Manuel Godoy destabilized the government. The execution of Louis XVI led to a European coalition against revolutionary France. Spain participated in the war of 1793-1795, experiencing initial success followed by defeat. The Peace of Basel in 1795 subjected Spain to French influence. The Treaty of San Ildefonso further aligned Spain with France. Under Napoleon Bonaparte, France adopted an imperialist policy targeting Great Britain. Godoy’s alliance with Napoleon led to the Spanish fleet’s defeat at Trafalgar in 1805, severing Spain’s connection with its American colonies and plunging the country into economic crisis, exacerbated by famine and epidemics. Tax increases and measures against the Church fueled opposition from the nobility and clergy, who allied with popular sectors supporting Prince Ferdinand. The Treaty of Fontainebleau allowed French troops into Spain to invade Portugal, but the French occupied Spanish cities like Madrid and Barcelona. The Mutiny of Aranjuez resulted in Godoy’s dismissal and Charles IV’s abdication in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII.
The French War and Joseph Bonaparte’s Monarchy (1808)
Charles IV and Ferdinand VII sought Napoleon’s arbitration in Bayonne, where both abdicated in Napoleon’s favor. Napoleon then installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as King of Spain. Joseph attempted modernization policies, enacting the Statute of Bayonne in 1808. This statute abolished the manorial regime, untied primogeniture, and targeted Church lands, but faced strong opposition.
Resistance Against the Invader
The popular uprising in Madrid on May 2, 1808, and the brutal French repression under General Murat sparked uprisings across Spain. Rebels included supporters of the old regime and those favoring a new bourgeois liberal model. These groups formed governing juntas in controlled territories. A Supreme Central Junta was established in Aranjuez to coordinate efforts, later fleeing to Seville and then Cadiz in 1810 under pressure from the French and protection from the British fleet.
Armed Struggle and Guerrilla Warfare
Resistance in Zaragoza, Girona, and Tarragona hindered French advances towards Andalusia. The Battle of Bailén prevented the occupation of Andalusia and forced Joseph I to flee. Napoleon arrived with a large army, and by early 1809 controlled most of the peninsula, with resistance concentrated in Cadiz and Lisbon. The regular army’s failures led to the rise of guerrilla warfare. These diverse groups, with strong local knowledge and civilian support, controlled much of the countryside, confining the French largely to cities. Brutal French reprisals only fueled resistance, with guerrilla forces reaching 55,000 men.
Catalonia and Annexation to France
The French controlled Barcelona, but other Catalan cities resisted. Girona fell in 1809, followed by Vic, Tortosa, and Tarragona. To win over the population, the French implemented economic development policies and authorized the use of Catalan. In 1812, Catalonia was incorporated into the French Empire. However, Napoleon’s disastrous Russian campaign and Wellington’s victory at Torres Vedras reversed French fortunes. British forces defeated the French at Ciudad Rodrigo, Arapiles, Salamanca, and San Marcial. The Treaty of Valençay restored Ferdinand VII, and French troops withdrew from Spain.
Attitudes During the Invasion
Afrancesados, primarily nobles and some bourgeois, supported Enlightenment reforms and saw the French presence as an opportunity for modernization. Many had fled the country with the return of the absolutist Ferdinand VII. The clergy and nobility, largely agrarian, sought to preserve the old regime and reverse reforms. Enlightened figures, including some clergy and nobles, advocated for continuing 18th-century reforms, looking to Britain as a model. Liberals, belonging to the urban middle class, desired a liberal political system and capitalist economy.