Spain Under Fernando VII & Latin American Independence
Part 4: The Reign of Fernando VII
4.3 The Ominous Decade
There were no conflicts or internal divisions that could provoke the fall of the liberal regime, but the action of the Holy Alliance, heeding calls from Fernando VII, commissioned France’s intervention in Spain. In April 1823, some 100,000 soldiers broke into Spanish territory. Restorative powers deemed some moderate reforms necessary. There was a fierce repression against the liberals. The army and administration were purged throughout the decade, and adherents of liberal ideas were persecuted. The other concern was the economic problem. The difficulties of the Treasury, aggravated by the final loss of the colonies, forced strict control of public spending. Since 1825, the king’s economic problems led to collaboration with a moderate financial and industrial bourgeoisie sector of Madrid and Barcelona. This caused increasing distrust from the ultra-royalist sectors of the court. In Catalonia, royalist parties rose, demanding more power for the ultra-conservatives. This sector grouped around Carlos Maria Isidro.
4.4 The Dynastic Conflict
The birth of King Fernando’s daughter, Isabel, seemed to ensure Bourbon continuity. The Salic Law, of French origin and implemented by Felipe V, prevented women from accessing the throne. Fernando VII struck down the law through the Pragmatic Sanction. The more conservative sector of the absolutists, called Carlists, refused to accept the new situation. In 1832, they pressured the monarch to replenish the Salic Law. These clashes were part of the struggle to impose one model of society or another. Maria Christina became regent during the king’s illness and formed a new reformist government. In 1833, Fernando VII died, reaffirming in his will his daughter Isabel as heir to the throne and appointing Queen Maria Cristina as governor. The same day, Don Carlos proclaimed himself king, thus beginning the First Carlist War.
Part 5: Hispanic-American Independence
5.1 The End of Spanish America in the 18th Century
The strong concern of the Bourbons had led to an era of prosperity based on the reactivation of trade. Economic growth enabled the development of a powerful Creole bourgeoisie. It was among this Creole bourgeoisie that ideas of emancipation from the mother country took shape and forged the programs and projects of Independence. These ideas were caused by the discriminatory treatment given to the natives in social positions, by being subjected to heavy taxes, and by the control that Spain exercised over the economy and trade. Great Britain was responsible for supporting secessionist movements.
5.2 The Independence Process
The Creoles came together and took power in their territories. They were faithful to Fernando VII but did not recognize the authority of the Central Junta. The most secessionist outbreaks were in the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata, the Viceroyalty of New Granada and Venezuela, and Mexico. The courts of Cadiz saw the colonies as Spanish territory and recognized the rights of the Creoles. In 1814, after the end of the Spanish-French war, the government of Fernando VII responded by sending an army of 10,000 men to pacify New Granada and Mexico, although they were powerless in the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata. Paraguay and Argentina became independent. The intransigence of the monarchy was a total stimulus to the growth of the independence movement. San Martin crossed the Andes, defeated the Spanish at Chacabuco, and enabled the independence of Chile. Bolivar defeated the Spanish army in Boyaca and Carabobo and laid the foundation for the formation of Gran Colombia, which led to the republics of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Panama. In Mexico, the independence movement, led by Agustin de Iturbide, was able to attract the church and powerful classes. After the independence of Peru and Bolivia, only a minimal Spanish presence remained in continental America.
5.3 The Problems of the New American Nations
The emancipation of the colonies and the creation of independent republics did not solve all problems:
- The dream of the liberators, to achieve a united, strong, and solidary America, proved impossible. The interests of local warlords led to countless wars and the division of territory into multiple republics.
- The Creoles who led the independence movement left the vast majority of the Indian, black, or poor population stranded.
- Spanish dominance was replaced by the constant intrusion of Great Britain and the United States.