Spain Under Franco: Dictatorship, Politics, and Economy (1959-1975)
Franco’s Spain (1959-1975)
1. Foundations, Support, and Opposition
1.1. Institutions and Ideology
The Franco regime transitioned from fascism to a conservative military dictatorship due to Cold War pressures. It adopted limited pluralism (organic democracy) but maintained a single party. The 1967 Organic Law of the State established the National Movement monarchy. The Church, while initially supportive, began distancing itself due to Vatican II, though groups like Opus Dei remained loyal. The Army continued its unwavering support.
1.2. Social Support
The dictatorship’s primary base was the agrarian, financial, and industrial oligarchy. Changes in the 1950s and 1960s shifted influence to other groups, including workers and the middle class, who benefited economically but increasingly favored democratic change. University circles were largely hostile, and while opposition grew, political indifference persisted.
1.3. Opposition to the Regime
Internal opposition in the 1950s was weak, limited to universities and some strikes. Labor unrest grew, alongside other critical fronts (ETA, GRAPO, Munich conspiracy). Exiled groups fueled union action and student mobilization. ETA’s Basque nationalist terrorism emerged in the late 1960s, leading to states of emergency. Catalonian opposition remained peaceful, coalescing in the 1970s around the Assembly of Catalonia. As Franco’s death approached, democratic parties organized into coalitions (Democratic Board, Democratic Convergence) aiming to force a democratic transition.
2. Franco’s Policies (1959-1969)
Economic gains from liberalization became evident in the 1960s. The Falange, evolving into a right-wing group, lost influence to technocratic ministries (Lopez Rodo, Navarro Rubio), some linked to Opus Dei. Carrero Blanco gained prominence. The dictatorship became an ‘organic democracy,’ with limited pluralism expressed through controlled channels. The regime sought international respectability, but repression continued (Grimau execution). The system remained stable, celebrating “25 years of peace.” Reformers and technocrats entered the government in 1965. A new press law abolished censorship, and the Organic Law of the State institutionalized the monarchy, with Juan Carlos de Borbón named successor in 1969. Foreign policy was managed by Catholics. Decolonization of Morocco occurred in the 1950s. Unsuccessful attempts were made to reclaim Gibraltar, leading to border closure. Spain sought EEC entry, achieving only a preferential agreement.
3. Franco’s Policies (1969-1975)
This period began with the Matesa corruption scandal. Carrero Blanco’s power grew, and he pursued institutional reforms and political openness to ensure the regime’s survival after Franco. In 1973, he formed a government under Franco’s nominal leadership. His key project was a law on political participation, allowing limited political associations. Carrero Blanco’s assassination by ETA in 1973 disrupted continuity. Arias Navarro became Prime Minister. Between 1974 and 1975, the dictatorship faced crisis. Arias Navarro advanced the limited political association law, but even regime supporters were dissatisfied. ETA, FRAP, and GRAPO terrorism intensified. The oil crisis worsened the economy, and opposition emerged within the military (Democratic Military Union), inspired by Portugal’s Carnation Revolution. Relations with Morocco deteriorated due to the failed decolonization of Western Sahara (Madrid Agreement). Franco’s declining health became evident. He died on November 20, 1975, and Juan Carlos de Borbón was proclaimed Head of State on November 22.
4. Economy, Society, and Culture
From 1957, the government shifted to economic liberalization, abandoning autarky. This led to economic growth and social transformations (urbanization, industrialization). The Navarro Rubio and Ullastres Stabilization Plan (1959) encouraged foreign investment. Internal and external migration, particularly to Europe, increased significantly. Industrialization was promoted through subsidies and tax benefits, with development plans implemented. While some targets were missed, the impact was positive. Tourism and remittances became crucial. Growth slowed in the 1960s due to the oil crisis. Society became increasingly open to outside influences, with secularization growing. The Press Law allowed for greater publication freedom, including some tolerance for literature in Catalan and Galician. Vocational education and the extension of compulsory education to 14 years were promoted.