Spain Under Franco: From Dictatorship to Development (1939-1973)
Franco’s Rise and State Building (1939-1945)
Franco’s Dictatorship
The Franco regime, established during the Spanish Civil War and consolidated thereafter, was a personal dictatorship concentrating all power in General Franco. This regime drew parallels with fascist regimes in Italy and Germany, marked by intense anti-liberalism.
Ideological Foundations
The regime’s ideology stemmed from the Traditionalist Spanish Falange de las JONS, incorporating a national-Catholic vision. This religious fundamentalism portrayed Franco as a providential figure chosen by God. Militarism, rooted in the Civil War victory, was another defining feature.
Centralization and Nationalism
The Francoist state was highly centralized, abolishing Republican autonomy legislation. A strong nationalist sentiment permeated official rhetoric, emphasizing Spain’s historical glory.
Totalitarianism and Populism
The regime’s totalitarian nature involved state intervention in all aspects of social life. Like other totalitarian regimes, it fostered identification between the nation, the single party, and the leader. Populist tactics were employed to mobilize public support, particularly for international consumption.
Pillars of the Regime
Franco’s regime maintained power for nearly four decades with support from the financial oligarchy, landowners, the urban middle class, and small peasantry. Institutionally, the Falange, the Church, and the Army formed its core pillars. The Church played a key legitimizing role, receiving privileges in society, education, and public morals in return. The regime protected Catholicism, describing itself as “national-Catholic,” with Franco as “leader of Spain by the grace of God.”
Early Foreign Policy
Domestic policy until 1945 mirrored wartime practices. In 1941, despite Spain’s declared non-belligerency, Franco dispatched the Blue Division to fight against Soviet communism alongside Germany.
Towards a Monarchy?
In 1945, Franco enacted the Charter of the Spanish, outlining certain rights and duties. The 1947 Law of Succession designated Spain as a kingdom, paving the way for a potential monarchy restoration.
Economic Consolidation and Transformations (1945-1973)
Tourism and International Relations
The 1950s witnessed the rise of tourism as a significant socio-economic phenomenon. The end of Spain’s political isolation, increased tourism revenue, and rapprochement with Western countries led to economic improvement and the need for regime change. Economically trained ministers, some from Opus Dei, were appointed.
Technocrats and Economic Development
The 1957 government marked the decline of Falangist ideals and the rise of technocrats—modern, economically-minded, and politically conservative figures. Their management ushered in an era of development, starting with the 1959 Stabilization Plan.
Political Repression and Opposition
Despite economic progress, the 1960s saw no political liberalization. The rise of Pope John XXIII and the Second Vatican Council alienated parts of the Church from the regime. Nationalist tensions resurfaced in Catalonia and the Basque Country, with the emergence of ETA terrorism. Labor disputes and strikes increased, demanding labor rights and political freedoms.
Spain’s bid to join the EEC in 1962 led to a scandal when a liberal group in Munich opposed Spain’s admission until it embraced political freedoms (the “Munich conspiracy”). Political repression continued, exemplified by the 1963 execution of Julian Grimau, a communist leader.
Limited Reforms and Growing Opposition
The regime introduced minor changes, such as the 1966 Press Law, which theoretically promoted “openness” but maintained censorship. In 1969, Juan Carlos de Borbón was named Franco’s successor “as a King.” Underground unionism resurfaced with the CCOO, and universities became centers of opposition. Repression intensified with the Political-Social Brigade and the Court of Public Order. ETA’s first attack in 1968 and the subsequent indiscriminate repression and military trials increased support for the group, notably during the 1970 Burgos Trial, where nine ETA members were sentenced to death, sparking international outcry.
Economic Expansion and Social Change
The 1959 Stabilization Plan, designed by technocrats following World Bank and IMF guidelines, aimed to liberalize the economy. Public spending cuts, reduced state intervention, and open foreign investment policies spurred rapid industrial and service sector growth, albeit with low wages and heavy foreign investment. Exports multiplied, and the balance of payments improved due to tourism, foreign investment, and remittances from emigrants in Europe.
Development plans from 1963 onwards aimed to stimulate industrial growth in depressed areas, achieving moderate success. Economic expansion continued until the 1973 oil crisis halted progress.
Social Transformations
The 1960s witnessed significant social changes, including population growth, massive rural emigration to urban centers and Europe (over 1 million Spaniards moved to France, Germany, Switzerland, etc.), reducing unemployment but exacerbating wealth disparities. Education, healthcare, and housing lagged behind in rapidly growing cities. A consumer society emerged with the spread of television, appliances, and cars. Women increasingly entered the workforce, leading to a more open mentality despite strict censorship. This new mindset clashed with the regime’s traditionalism, particularly among youth, leading to declining Church influence, changing social and sexual habits, and new fashions.
A growing middle class of professionals, specialized officers, and employees became the most dynamic element of the new society. By the end of Franco’s dictatorship, economic and social changes outpaced political life, which remained rooted in the past. Spain had become a more urban, open, and pluralistic society.