Spain Under Franco: Politics, Economy, and Society
Franco’s Regime: Design and Construction
The design and construction of the new Spanish state under Franco was determined by three key factors. At the top was the dictator, Generalissimo of the armies, head of state, and head of the single party. He drafted laws and appointed ministers, concentrating all power. In 1942, the Spanish Cortes replaced the parliament to work with the Head of State. The Franco regime was highly centralized, developing fundamental laws.
Suppression of Opposition
All opposing forces, including unions and political entities, were suppressed, with the exception of the FET and JONS. Members of banned organizations were prosecuted, and rights of association and expression disappeared. Repression continued after the war. From the beginning, major political opposition was defeated. The primary form of struggle against Franco was guerrilla warfare launched by remnants of the Republican Army and Spanish partisans (the Maquis). These efforts ultimately failed.
International Politics and Evolution
Spain initially declared neutrality, favoring the Axis powers without entering the war. After Germany’s defeat, the government declared neutrality towards democratic countries, passing three laws: the Fuero de los Españoles (1945), a declaration of rights that were not respected; the Ley de Referéndum (1945), allowing the head of state to call referendums; and the ratification of the Succession Act. In 1948, Franco met with Juan de Borbón and agreed that his son would be educated in Spain. The UN did not condemn the Franco regime, but recommended that members break diplomatic and commercial relations with Spain. Liberal powers maintained ambiguity about the Spanish Civil War and Franco’s role.
Economic Hardship and Autarky
The Spanish economy struggled. By 1950, living standards remained low. The regime blamed the ravages of war, but the real culprit was autarky—an economic policy aimed at creating a self-sufficient productive structure. Rooted in fascist theories, autarky prioritized political considerations over economic costs. State agencies like the National Institute of Industry controlled production and prices. Agricultural backwardness and drought compounded the problems, leading to rationing of essential consumer goods.
Stabilization and Economic Opening
With the approval of the Stabilization Plan of 1957, the government shifted away from autarky, definitively abandoning it in 1959. Spain entered the international monetary system, reduced government intervention, and opened its borders to trade, laying the foundation for economic and social development.
Society Under Franco
The 1936 uprising and the resulting political system perpetuated capitalist society. Land was returned to its previous owners. Social principles emphasized private ownership of production combined with state intervention in the economy and social relations (wages). In 1940, vertical unionism, modeled after Italian fascism, was established. This system aimed to overcome class struggle by uniting members of the nation towards a common goal. Demonstrations were prohibited, and women’s equality suffered. These policies worsened workers’ living conditions, leading to labor unrest, notably in Bilbao in 1947.
Crisis and Decline of the Regime
From the late 1960s, the Franco regime faced increasing political crises. Despite economic growth, its ability to respond to demands was insufficient. Franco’s declining health and the opposition’s growing political initiative contributed to the crisis. The regime attempted to combine democratizing measures with increased law enforcement. From 1967, elections were held for some court attorneys. States of emergency were declared, martial law was reinstated, and death sentences were carried out, notably after the ETA attack that killed Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco in 1973.
Desgobierno and Economic Crisis
A key feature of Franco’s final years was desgobierno (misgovernment). From 1970, a global economic crisis led to rising inflation and unemployment, and the government failed to take appropriate measures. In 1975, the Spanish Sahara was ceded to Morocco and Mauritania. On November 20, Franco died after nearly 40 years of rule marked by disregard for human rights.
Political Opposition and Resistance
By the late 1960s, the opposition had gained momentum. In Catalonia, a coordinator of parties formed the Assembly of Catalonia in 1969. Other opposition groups included the Democratic Junta of Spain and the Democratic Convergence Platform. In the Basque Country, ETA conducted military actions. The trial and subsequent pardoning of 16 ETA members sparked further violence. Other anti-Franco groups included GRAPO, MPAIAC, and FRAP. Sectors that had previously supported the regime, such as the military hierarchy and the oligarchy, began to withdraw their support, often with backing from the United States.
Economic Development and its Drawbacks
Spain experienced a period of rapid economic growth, but it was uneven, dependent on foreign investment, and concentrated geographically. This led to a large deficit and other negative consequences.