Spain’s 16th Century: Rise of the Habsburgs

Posted on Oct 13, 2024 in Geography

Spain in the 16th Century

1. Introduction

During this period, the power of kings grew, leading to the development of national states. A new ideological movement, humanism, emerged, emphasizing reason and critical thinking. Scientific advances, geographical discoveries, and religious discussions revolutionized the era’s mentality. Erasmus of Rotterdam developed Christian Humanism, while Martin Luther’s Protestant Reformation spread rapidly through Central Europe. The Catholic Church responded with the Counter-Reformation, supported militarily and ideologically by Spain, particularly through the Jesuits.

Spain welcomed the Habsburg dynasty, ruling throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. The 16th century witnessed the reigns of Charles I and Philip II, followed by Philip III, Philip IV, and Charles II in the 17th century. The 16th century marked Spain’s rise, while the 17th century saw its decline.

2. The Rule of Charles I

Charles I, born in Ghent in 1500, was the son of Philip the Handsome and Joanna of Castile. He inherited vast territories: Castile, the Indies, Aragon, and Mediterranean possessions from his maternal grandparents (the Catholic Monarchs); and the Holy Roman Empire, the Netherlands, Burgundy, and Franche-Comté from his paternal grandparents. Charles I became the most powerful man of his time.

A. Internal Conflicts (Domestic Policy)

Proclaimed King of Spain in 1516, Charles arrived in Asturias in 1517, surrounded by Flemish advisors. Unfamiliar with the Spanish language, traditions, and institutions, he filled political positions with Flemish individuals. Upon the death of his grandfather, Emperor Maximilian, Charles needed funds from Castile to secure his own imperial appointment. This led to the Revolt of the Comuneros in 1520, where Castilian cities rebelled against him. The commoners demanded that the king:

  • Reside in Spain and focus on Spanish affairs
  • Respect the Cortes (parliament)
  • Appoint Spaniards, not foreigners, to political offices
  • Control the outflow of Spanish money
  • Protect wool exports, crucial for Castilian industrialization

With the involvement of the lower classes, the nobility became divided, leading Charles I to offer political positions to both nobles and commoners. The revolt was ultimately suppressed, and its leaders (Bravo, Padilla, and Maldonado) were executed in Villalar.

The Germania, a social conflict during the king’s absence, saw the lower classes clashing with the nobility in Mediterranean areas like Valencia, the Balearic Islands, and Murcia. The king suppressed this rebellion, strengthening royal power.

Foreign Policy

Charles V’s foreign policy aimed to create a universal Christian monarchy but ultimately failed. He contended with powerful contemporaries like Suleiman (Ottoman Sultan), Francis I (King of France), and Henry VIII (King of England). His foreign policy focused on three fronts:

  • France: Inheriting a conflict from the Catholic Monarchs, Charles clashed with Francis I, who also sought the imperial title. France invaded Italy, leading to battles with Spain. The Battle of Pavia, a Spanish victory, secured the Duchy of Milan for Spain, marking a key moment in the struggle for European control.
  • Turkey: The conflict with the Ottoman Empire stemmed from the fight against Islam, the Ottoman expansion into Hungary, and the Barbary pirate attacks on Spanish territories in North Africa. This front saw both victories and defeats, continuing into the reign of Philip II.
  • Protestantism: Charles I attempted to dissuade German princes from embracing Luther’s rapidly spreading ideas through the Diet of Worms. This failed, leading to numerous conflicts exploited by France, which supported the German princes. Charles I eventually signed the Peace of Augsburg, recognizing religious freedom within the Empire. Exhausted, he abdicated a year later, dividing his possessions: his brother received the Holy Roman Empire, and his son, Philip II, inherited the rest (Castile, Aragon, the Duchy of Milan, Franche-Comté, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and the Americas). Charles I spent his final days at the Monastery of Yuste.

3. The Hispanic Monarchy of Philip II

Born in Valladolid, Philip II received a typically Spanish education. He was a wise, hardworking, and meticulous king, though criticized for his religious orthodoxy. He was also a Renaissance man.

a) Domestic Policy

Philip II’s domestic policy focused on concentrating power in the monarchy and enforcing religious intolerance. Key measures included:

  • Establishing Spain as the military arm of the Counter-Reformation
  • Strengthening the Inquisition, demonstrated by acts of faith in Valladolid and Seville
  • Prohibiting studying abroad to prevent the spread of Protestant ideas
  • Creating a list of banned books
  • Suppressing Moorish culture in Granada, leading to revolts in the city and the Alpujarras, resulting in the execution or exile of an estimated 150,000 Moors

The case of Antonio Perez, Philip’s secretary, accused of treason and fleeing to Aragon, highlights the king’s use of the Inquisition and the subsequent Aragonese uprising against this intrusion. Perez eventually escaped to France with Aragonese assistance.

b) Foreign Policy

Continuing Charles I’s policies, Philip II pursued European hegemony and the defense of Catholicism, focusing on the Mediterranean and the Atlantic.

  • Mediterranean: After the Ottoman Empire conquered Cyprus (a Venetian possession), Spain joined the Holy League with Venice and the Papacy, defeating the Turks at Lepanto. This victory brought stability, though piracy continued.
  • Atlantic:
    • Netherlands: A rebellion erupted due to the spread of Protestantism, an economic crisis fueled by European trade competition, and the king’s absence. Philip II sent troops but couldn’t quell the rebellion in the northern Netherlands, which formed the Seven United Provinces (led by Holland) and gained independence after the Thirty Years’ War.
    • Portugal: Following the death of King Sebastian without an heir, Philip II, the strongest candidate, annexed Portugal with the support of the Church and the bourgeoisie. Portugal retained its institutions, laws, and army, governed by a viceroy and Portuguese officials.
    • England: Conflict arose with the accession of Protestant Queen Elizabeth I, driven by the expansion of Protestantism, English support for Dutch rebels, and England’s involvement in the Indies trade, including piracy against Spanish galleons. Philip II’s attempt to invade England with the Spanish Armada failed.
    • Philippines: Exploration and colonization of the Philippines led to trade between the Americas and the Philippines.

4. Political Model of the Habsburgs

The Habsburgs continued the political model established by the Catholic Monarchs, centralizing power in the monarchy. Their territories didn’t form a unified state, as exemplified by the annexation of Portugal. However, they maintained a unified foreign policy. Key institutions included:

  • Councils: The Council of State consolidated power, alongside councils addressing specific regional issues (Castile, Indies, etc.). Thematic councils focused on Treasury, War, and the Inquisition.
  • Royal Secretaries: Their power increased, linking the Councils and the king.
  • Viceroyalties: Established in remote territories like the Indies
  • The Court: Maintained its medieval structure
  • Audiencias: Administered justice
  • Corregidores: Administered municipalities
  • Treasury: Despite precious metals from America and oppressive taxation, the state faced constant deficits, resorting to borrowing from bankers and selling public offices.

5. Economy, Society, and Culture in the 16th Century

Economy

Spain transitioned from a medieval structure to a global empire. The population increased to 8 million by the century’s end, with Seville becoming the most populous city due to American trade. Mercantilism flourished, emphasizing a favorable trade balance and wealth measured in precious metals. The primary sector, particularly transhumant livestock farming, dominated. Agricultural production grew, but productivity remained low. Industrial development was limited, except for textiles and shipbuilding. Wars and limited industrial growth led to a severe economic crisis.

Society and Culture

16th-century Spanish society was stratified, with peasants forming the majority and artisans organized into guilds in cities. The privileged classes included the grandees of Spain, while the Church represented a diverse estate. Concepts like “cleanliness of blood” (old Christian ancestry) and hidalguización (bourgeoisie seeking noble status) were prominent. Culture blended Renaissance Humanism and the Counter-Reformation. Research thrived in fields like astronomy. Art reflected Italian and Flemish influences, with the emergence of the Plateresque style. Academies grew, featuring figures like Antonio de Nebrija, Fray Luis de León, Garcilaso de la Vega, and Saint John of the Cross. However, most of the population remained illiterate. Catholicism, while facing challenges, produced prominent theologians and the Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius of Loyola.