Spain’s 1808 Crisis: War & Revolution
The 1808 Crisis in Spain
Carlos IV, son and successor of Charles III, attempted to continue the moderate reformist and authoritarian politics of his father. However, the monarch lacked his predecessor’s personality and was less active. His reign marked the beginning of the crisis of the Ancien Régime.
Carlos IV soon opted for a valido, Manuel Godoy, who became the chief enforcer of the monarchy’s policy. This dramatically weakened the power and image of the kings in the eyes of their subjects and foreign powers. The French Revolution placed Spain in a difficult position: should it follow agreements with now-revolutionary France or ally with England against the revolutionary danger?
Defeat by revolutionary France in 1795 and defeat against England at Trafalgar in 1805, after shifting alliances, increased Godoy’s unpopularity. He became increasingly dependent on the French government, now led by Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1807, Napoleon decided to use Spain as a bridge to reach Portugal (an ally of the United Kingdom). He introduced troops at strategic locations on the Iberian Peninsula.
Debts inherited from Charles III’s reign and constant wars against the British brought the Crown to the brink of bankruptcy. Godoy faced growing political opposition. On the left were enemies of absolutism. On the right were those advocating for Godoy’s removal. This group was larger, including aristocrats and intellectuals excluded by the monarch. It was led by the Prince of Asturias and heir, Fernando, who, along with his supporters, spread rumors against the kings and Godoy, even concocting several plots. The El Escorial plot failed, but the Mutiny of Aranjuez succeeded in 1808. Godoy, suspicious of Napoleon’s intentions, planned to move the kings to Andalusia. When this plan became known, a riot broke out in Aranjuez. Godoy was imprisoned, and Charles IV was forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Fernando.
The overthrow of a legitimate monarch by a popular uprising was unprecedented, revealing the extent of the Spanish Crown’s political decay. Napoleon decided to create a satellite monarchy of France, placing a member of his family on the throne. This plan met with unexpected armed opposition, leading to the Peninsular War (1808-1814).
The Spark of War
The war was sparked by Napoleon’s actions. He lured Carlos IV and Fernando VII, along with Godoy, to Bayonne, a French town near the Spanish border. There, Napoleon forced both monarchs to renounce the Spanish crown, offering it to his brother, Joseph, to implement reforms and strengthen the alliance with France.
In Madrid, constant incidents occurred between the population and French troops, who had occupied the city since March and become the real political power. This led to a popular uprising on May 2, 1808. News of the royal family’s departure fueled rumors of French treachery: Napoleon’s soldiers were not there to support Ferdinand VII but to depose him. In this uprising, the popular classes of Madrid spontaneously fought the French in the Puerta del Sol. Spanish soldiers and officers from the Monteleón Artillery Barracks also participated.
The army remained stationed on the orders of the Minister of War and the Captain General of Madrid, who were inhibited, along with the Gallic aristocracy and religious leaders. It was initially a purely popular revolt.
The Peninsular War: A Complex Process
- International Conflict: The war extended beyond Spain and France to Portugal, also invaded by French troops. The United Kingdom, France’s and Spain’s enemy, intervened. British troops landed on the peninsula, using Portugal as a base to fight the French. Their intervention was crucial in supporting the Spanish revolt and supplying Cadiz, a center of anti-Napoleonic resistance. The Duke of Wellington played a key role.
- Civil War: Napoleon’s troops entered the peninsula not just as invaders but also as collaborators, bringing ideas from the French Revolution: nation, freedom, equality before the law, social and economic reform, and modernization. These ideas resonated in Spain, mainly among intellectual, political, and social elites who collaborated with the French. These collaborators were called afrancesados, including figures like Goya and Fernandez de Moratín. However, many Spaniards opposed the French occupation, including enlightened politicians and the working classes. The latter organized troops and armed bands, supported by nobles and clergy who felt threatened by French reforms.
- Political Crisis: The absence of a legitimate monarch caused a power vacuum and a serious political crisis. As much of the Spanish government collaborated with the French army, alternative political powers were improvised, acting on behalf of the king but exercising their own authority. This was revolutionary, leading to the Cortes of Cadiz, which drafted and adopted the Constitution of 1812.
Military Stages of the War
- May-October 1808: The French army failed to dominate the Iberian Peninsula. Cities like Zaragoza (General Palafox) and Gerona (General Alvarez Castro) rebelled and were besieged. French troops invading Andalusia were defeated at Bailén by General Castaños and Marshal Dupont. Napoleon’s soldiers in Portugal surrendered to the British at Sintra. These defeats forced the invading army to retreat.
- October 1808 – July 1812: Despite French military hegemony, significant pockets of insurrection remained uncontrolled. The terrain and local resistance hindered the French army. Despite Napoleon’s presence in late 1808, they failed to take Lisbon and Cadiz, which became resistance centers. Guerrilla warfare intensified during this stage. Guerrillas were formed by officers, soldiers, bandits, adventurers, and even clerics. They constantly harassed French troops and communication lines, attacking with speed and surprise. The guerrillas had civilian support and undermined the morale and resources of the French troops.
- July 1812-1814: A major Allied offensive led to the expulsion of French troops, weakened by Napoleon’s disastrous campaign in Russia. Under Wellington’s command, British, Portuguese, and Spanish forces were victorious at Arapiles, Vitoria, and San Marcial. Following the Treaty of Valençay, Napoleon recognized Fernando VII as King of Spain.
Two Political Models
During the war, two political models clashed: the French reformist model of Joseph Bonaparte and the emerging Spanish liberal model, culminating in the Cortes of Cadiz.
Joseph Bonaparte’s Regime
- Joseph surrounded himself with afrancesados to lend legitimacy to his reign. He convened a meeting of Spanish notables in Bayonne to approve a new constitution, the Statute of Bayonne (1808). This moderate reformist charter was never fully applied due to the war. It established an authoritarian regime with almost absolute royal power, while recognizing some individual rights and economic freedoms. It also created a parliament representing the three estates.
- Joseph’s reforms included abolishing feudal rights and the Inquisition, and suppressing male religious orders. He continued the confiscation of property, especially from the clergy and nobility. These measures were abolished by Fernando VII after the war.
- Joseph attempted to create an autonomous regime, distancing himself from Napoleon, but failed due to military and economic dependence on France.
The Spanish Revolution
The war spurred a new political system promoted by Spaniards who supported neither Joseph Bonaparte nor the Ancien Régime institutions collaborating with him. This was a true political revolution, leading to new institutions claiming to act on behalf of the king but deriving legitimacy from the Spanish people. This gave rise to the concept of the Nation.
The most important institutions were the juntas, local and provincial bodies composed of notables, military figures, clergy, and citizens. The need for political and military coordination led to the formation of a Supreme Central Junta in Aranjuez. Its most representative figure was Jovellanos.
The Supreme Central Junta, fleeing the French army, relocated to Cadiz. Despite disagreements, it decided to convene the Cortes to counteract Joseph Bonaparte’s meeting and the Statute of Bayonne. The first meeting of the Cortes was held in Cadiz in 1810.