Spain’s 1812 Constitution: A Liberal Revolution
The Dawn of Liberalism
The French invasion and the liberal revolution coincided, leading to the creation of the Central Board, a governing body established in the absence of the king. This board convened the Cortes, formalizing the revolution. This initiative led to the Court of Cádiz and the first Spanish Constitution of 1812, nicknamed “La Pepa.” Absolutism was challenged as the estate society, manorial system, and autocratic rule were questioned.
Formation of the Cortes of Cádiz
Electing members to the Cortes was challenging due to the ongoing war. The members represented diverse viewpoints: supporters of absolutism, those favoring a mixed regime, and liberals advocating for a single chamber and a national constitution. The liberal majority, influenced by Cádiz’s status as a major commercial center, held significant power. Members included representatives from the old estates, the urban middle class, state officials, and liberal professions.
Legislative Achievements
Before drafting the constitution, the court achieved significant legislative milestones. They declared national sovereignty, proclaimed equality before the law (including for those in the colonies), and implemented reforms such as freedom of the press, abolition of feudal rights and guilds, and freedom of work, production, industry, and commerce. Agrarian reforms were also initiated.
Key Features of the 1812 Constitution
The constitution, promulgated on March 19, 1812, embodied the liberal and revolutionary spirit influenced by France in 1789. Key features included:
- National sovereignty (represented by the Cortes)
- Equality before the law for all citizens
- Separation of powers (King as executive, Cortes as legislative, and an independent judiciary)
- Catholicism as the sole religion and a confessional state
- Universal male suffrage (with income restrictions) for parliamentary elections
- Establishment of a National Militia
- Creation of a moderate monarchy
- Economic freedom, including measures to reduce the privileges of the Mesta and a program of confiscation of collective properties.
Impact and Legacy
The Cortes and the constitution were immensely important, but short-lived. The ongoing war, the eventual French defeat, the return to absolutism, and the repeal of revolutionary measures limited their impact. However, the liberal progress made during this period fueled the struggle against absolutism throughout the 19th century, achieving temporary success during periods like the Liberal Triennium.
18th-Century Spain: Absolutism and Reform
Spain in the 18th century was an absolute monarchy. Charles III, successor to Fernando VI, introduced political and economic changes influenced by the Enlightenment. Reforms in trade, agriculture, and manufacturing blended mercantilism and liberalism, albeit with limitations.
Demographic and Economic Trends
Spain’s population grew significantly during the 18th century, unevenly distributed with greater growth in peripheral areas. This was attributed to fewer subsistence crises, economic improvements, medical advances, fewer wars, and pro-natalist policies. Agriculture remained the economic base, with the feudal system persisting. Low crop yields resulted from issues like uncultivated land, poor land quality, climate problems, and heavy taxes. These factors led to rising food prices. Innovations included new crops (maize, potatoes), irrigation projects, trade liberalization for some products, reduced Mesta privileges, and reforestation efforts.
Manufacturing and Trade
Manufacturing was small and locally oriented. Guild-controlled workshops dominated in the early 18th century. Charles III encouraged manufacturing development through protectionist measures, establishing royal factories, promoting private initiatives, reducing guild privileges, and declaring all professions “honest.” Catalonia thrived due to its resources and growing consumption and investment. Coastal areas specialized in viticulture and spirits production, while inland regions focused on wool. The cotton industry also expanded. Trade, both internal and external, grew due to economic and demographic growth and mercantilist policies. Internal trade faced challenges from poor infrastructure and numerous customs and tolls. Efforts to improve roads and reduce these barriers had limited success. Foreign trade involved importing manufactured goods and exporting raw materials and foodstuffs. Spain sought to revitalize American trade by abolishing the fleet system and creating commercial companies, but these measures proved ineffective. A subsequent liberalization policy benefited Catalonia and Andalusia.
Persistence of the Ancien Régime
Despite these reforms, Spain retained its Ancien Régime social structure. Society remained divided into estates with limited social mobility. Enlightened Despotism influenced the monarchs but didn’t fundamentally alter the system. The agricultural base and manorial system persisted. However, Charles III’s reforms laid the groundwork for the development of private property and initiated some confiscations. While agriculture remained largely unchanged, certain regions like Catalonia benefited from industrial development. These changes would contribute to the rise of liberal capitalism in later periods.