Spain’s 19th Century: Agriculture and Industrialization
The Spanish Agricultural Situation in the 19th Century
Liberal Agrarian Reform
In the first half of the 19th century, Spain underwent a liberal agrarian reform. During this process, domains and jurisdictional rights were abolished. Private property was split, and most church and municipal lands were disentailed. The ability to freely buy and sell land led to an increase in agricultural production, although cropping systems remained backward and archaic. Despite this, land remained a significant source of wealth.
Land Ownership and Labor
Land distribution was uneven due to the disappearance of entail, the feudal system, and the confiscations of Mendizábal and Mendoza. The ability to buy and sell land resulted in its concentration in the hands of a wealthy few. This produced a consequent increase in landless laborers and peasants, leading to social conflict. The lack of competitiveness in production also hindered economic growth and, consequently, the industrialization process.
Key Agricultural Sectors
The most important agricultural sectors were:
- Cereals: Despite protectionist policies and a lack of competitiveness, cereals remained a staple of the Spanish diet.
- Grapes: Spanish wines were widely exported to Europe, even competing with French wines, particularly during the phylloxera pest. In 1873, wine accounted for 52% of Spanish exports.
- Olive Oil: Olive oil was a crucial export product, distributed throughout Europe and America.
- Sugar Beet: Traditionally a product of Spanish colonies, the war in Cuba forced sugar beet cultivation in the Iberian Peninsula.
- Oranges: Oranges were another important crop.
Challenges and Migration
The problems generated by large estates in Extremadura, Castile, and Andalusia, coupled with the issues caused by smallholdings on poor-quality land, forced many farmers to migrate.
Industrialization Process in 19th Century Spain
Obstacles to Industrialization
Spain’s industrialization process faced numerous difficulties:
- Limited Investment: The oligarchy showed little interest in long-term investments, preferring quick profits.
- Wars in Cuba: Successive wars, particularly the Cuban War of Independence, diverted Spanish capital towards war expenses rather than industrial development.
- Transport and Market Limitations: The domestic market’s limited participation was due to high transport costs and the distance from industrialization centers, making raw materials more expensive.
- Energy Shortages: A lack of energy resources, such as water for hydroelectric power and the poor quality of Spanish coal, hindered industrial growth.
- Foreign Dependence: Spanish industry heavily relied on foreign capital and products.
- Low Demand: High taxes imposed by the Treasury to cover state spending suppressed demand.
Consequences
These factors contributed to Spain becoming a second-rate power, particularly after World War I, and hindered the development of a self-sustaining market.
Textile Industry
The textile industry primarily served domestic consumption. Its consolidation began in 1802 when the entry of cotton yarn was restricted. However, the American Civil War temporarily halted this progress. After the conflict, the sector experienced a resurgence. The introduction of the first steam engine significantly boosted the industry by enabling mechanization. This mechanization, coupled with the relative scarcity of labor following the incorporation of workers after the Cuban War of Independence, led to decreased costs and selling prices, thus increasing demand.