Spain’s 19th Century: Economy, Society, and Demographics
Agriculture, Industry, and Transportation in 19th-Century Spain
Agrarian Transformations
The confiscation was a *fake* land reform. We can distinguish three stages in the disentailment legislation:
- The first started with Godoy and continued with José I. The Cortes of Cádiz approved a general decree of confiscation, which could hardly be implemented.
- The second began with the disentailment laws of Mendizábal and lasted until its application was paralyzed by the moderate government of Narváez.
- The third began with the seizure of Madoz and lasted until the Restoration.
The consequences of this great process were:
- An increased number of large landowners.
- Wealthy buyers were allowed to cultivate large numbers of derelict lands.
- The big losers were the peasants, the Church, and the municipalities.
Production and Productivity
Production grew modestly until the last quarter of the century when the productivity of crops increased. Protectionist policies intended to curb the large agrarian crisis of the century.
Contribution of Agriculture
The cultivated area increased, but the population engaged in these tasks almost did not change, and levels of consumption and productivity were low. Domestic production was not sufficient to meet the demand of a growing population. Farming did not provide capital significantly.
Industry and Mining
Industrialization in 19th-century Spain has been described as a relative failure.
Textiles
The Cotton Sector
Catalonia was the center of this activity. Catalan industrial development was based on the introduction of steam engines. In 1835, the first protest against the machines by workers took place, destroying the cotton mill and machinery. This did not stop the expansion of this industry, aided by the introduction of *self-acting* mules. There was a recovery period, and there was a modest increase in demand, encouraged by increased trade monopoly that Spain imposed on its colonies in the Caribbean.
Wool Industry
The wool industry was focused on traditional Castilla y León, and the new machine industry was located in Terrassa and Sabadell. The traditional linen industry, centered in Galicia, failed to adapt to new techniques and new times and eventually became extinct in the 19th century.
Mining and Steel
Spanish mining remained stagnant for most of the 19th century. In 1868, the Basic Law on Mines favored the expansion of demand, and this expansion occurred with the help of foreign investment and the confiscation of the subsoil. Spain, at the end of the century, was the largest exporter of iron ore in Europe. Mining exports helped to develop the Basque steel industry. A company was created by the Ybarra family. There was a great expansion of the steel industry in Bilbao, with the creation of several companies, among which was the corporation Blast Furnaces and Iron and Steel Factory, which, after merging with two other companies, formed Altos Hornos de Vizcaya.
Other Industrial Activities
Notable mills were engaged in grinding grains or paper-making. Other industries derived from the farm, such as the production of olive oil and wine, became modernized. The plague of phylloxera that attacked the vines of southern France benefited from the expansion of this activity, but it eventually hit Spain as well.
Trade and Communications
Internal Trade
The obstacles to free trade within the Spanish territory were removed with little success; they barely managed to drive the market. The barriers were natural and fiscal. Some measures that helped to unify the market were the adoption of the metric system and the introduction of a new monetary system based on the peseta.
Foreign Trade
Protectionism and low market demand prompted some export sectors. The best sellers were farmers. These exports were bound for the United Kingdom, France, Argentina, etc.
Transport
Roads and Trails
Most of the road network was poor.
Shipping
Shipping improved in the 19th century due to the improvement and expansion of ports, the improvement of sailing, and the introduction of steam navigation.
Rail Transport
A royal order in 1844 began the first railway project, which opened in 1848 with the Barcelona-Mataró line. In the progressive stage of the biennium, the Railways Act of 1855 was approved.
Demographic Changes
Survival of the Old Demographic Regime
The mortality rate remained above the European average. This was explained by a number of factors: poor sanitation, starvation, high infant mortality, and epidemics. The birth rate remained high throughout the century. The reasons were the poverty in the Spanish countryside, ignorance about birth control, and overpopulation with respect to resources. The natural growth rate was very low.
Migration and Urbanization
Immigration laws changed in the 19th century; emigration was forbidden until 1853. The 1869 Constitution recognized the right to emigrate. There was also political emigration and exile. Spain in the 19th century had low rates of net migration. The rural exodus accelerated in the second half of the 19th century. This exodus enhanced urbanization, albeit slowly. However, Spain was a rural country.
The New Society
Upper Classes
The aristocracy was maintained despite the liberal revolution. The new titled nobility was linked to the business bourgeoisie.
Middle Classes
The rural middle class consisted of medium-sized farm owners, not landlords. The urban middle class was more numerous and influential because it required management and basic services. It was a group with a strong political commitment; its role was fundamental in building the Liberal State.
Bourgeoisie
The bourgeoisie was a class of fuzzy profiles, which is why today we speak of the bourgeoisie and the bourgeois mentality. They tended to imitate the aristocracy, although their activity and work were not the aristocratic model of the *rentista* mentality, which considered their work status unworthy. There was a confluence of interests between the nobility and the bourgeoisie. Depending on their activities, they can be divided into four groups: commercial, industrial, financial, and agricultural (*caciques*).
Classes
Peasantry
Two out of three people lived in or from the countryside. They had a bad situation due to liberal reform, plenty of laborers, the sharp division between north and south, and the rural exodus.
Urban Underclass
The majority of these social groups were active in the service sector, but a large number of artisans also survived in the workshops. There were also workers in the industry. The working and living conditions of the workers were very hard.
Marginalized
The poor were natural or beggars, amounting to 4% of the population in regions such as Extremadura and Andalusia. Another category was formed by vagrants, vagabonds, or rogues. Also part of the marginal population were inmates, patients in hospitals and hospices, foundlings, and prostitutes.
Women
Women in the upper class did not work, and those in the working classes could work in the countryside or in the city, but their salary was lower.