Spain’s 19th Century: Liberalism, Conflicts, and Economic Shifts
The Rise of Liberalism (1833-1843)
Upon Ferdinand VII’s death in 1833, his daughter Isabel II inherited the throne, ushering in an era of liberal consolidation. During her minority, power rested with regents: her mother, Maria Cristina (1833-1840), and later General Espartero (1840-1843). This period saw the emergence of two key parties: the Moderates and the Progressives.
The Moderates favored a more controlled reform policy, advocating for a Royal Charter to limit the monarchy’s power. This charter established advisory courts and approved taxes, aiming to unite influential sectors in defense of Isabel II. However, this approach faced resistance, leading to the rise of the Progressives in 1835.
Under the Progressives, the 1837 Constitution was enacted, marking a departure from both absolutism and the 1812 liberalism. This constitution:
- Reinforced the crown’s power through shared sovereignty with the Cortes.
- Restructured Parliament into two chambers: the Senate and the Congress of Deputies.
- Introduced a census-based voting system.
- Democratized local politics.
Socio-economic reforms included land disamortization, confiscation, abolition of the seigneurial regime, and free markets.
The Carlist Wars (1833-1876)
The rise of liberalism sparked the Carlist Wars, beginning in 1834. The Carlists, supporters of Don Carlos (Isabel II’s uncle), opposed liberalism and advocated for traditional values. Their ideology centered on “God, Homeland, and King,” attracting support from the Church, nobility, and rural oligarchies. Led by General Zumalacarregui, the Carlist army achieved early victories.
The war’s persistence stemmed from the Carlists’ strength, the regent’s indecision, the ineffectiveness of the Isabeline army, and the guerilla warfare tactics employed. However, from 1837 onward, the liberal forces gained ground due to their superior organization, support from France and England, internal Carlist divisions, and the Carlists’ lack of resources.
The Convention of Vergara in 1839, signed by Espartero and Maroto, officially ended the first Carlist War. However, Carlism persisted, resurfacing in later conflicts.
The Moderate Decade (1843-1854)
The Moderate Decade saw the consolidation of the liberal regime under Isabel II’s personal reign (1843-1868). The Moderates, led by Narváez, aimed to quell revolutionary fervor and establish stability. Their vision materialized in the 1845 Constitution, which:
- Established a conservative constitutional monarchy.
- Shared sovereignty between the Cortes and the King.
- Strengthened the Crown’s powers.
- Appointed Senators from the upper echelons of society.
- Maintained an elective Congress.
- Restricted suffrage through a high census.
Internal divisions within the Moderates, tensions between business and government, and growing social unrest ultimately destabilized the Moderate Decade.
The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856) and the Liberal Union (1856-1868)
The 1854 revolution, fueled by military discontent, progressive activism, and popular mobilization, led to the Progressive Biennium. Espartero and O’Donnell formed a government, restoring previously abolished legislation and promoting economic development through initiatives like the Madoz Disamortization and railway projects.
However, social unrest, hostility from the crown and Moderates, and internal divisions within the ruling coalition led to the Progressive Biennium’s collapse in 1856.
The Liberal Union, formed in 1858, aimed to stabilize the liberal regime by isolating reactionary factions and integrating the Progressives. However, its policies proved limited, failing to bridge the gap between Moderates and Progressives and ultimately contributing to the reign’s instability.
The Glorious Revolution and the Democratic Sexenio (1868-1874)
The 1868 Glorious Revolution, sparked by a military uprising in Cadiz, ousted Isabel II. Factors contributing to the revolution included the monarchy’s declining popularity, the rise of democratic ideals, and economic crises. The Provisional Government, led by Prim and Serrano, opted for a constitutional monarchy.
The 1869 Constitution established a democratic monarchy with expanded rights and freedoms. Amadeo I of Savoy became king in 1871, but his reign was plagued by political instability, opposition from various factions, and ongoing wars in Cuba and the second Carlist War.
Amadeo I abdicated in 1873, leading to the proclamation of the First Republic. The Republic faced internal divisions and social unrest, ultimately succumbing to a military coup in 1874, paving the way for the Restoration.
Economic and Social Evolution
Spanish agriculture experienced growth in the 19th century, driven by institutional reforms implemented during the liberal revolution. These reforms, including land disamortization, aimed to promote private property and free markets.
The textile and steel industries were key sectors in Spain’s industrialization. Catalonia’s textile industry experienced growth, while the steel industry faced challenges due to production costs. Consumer goods industries also saw significant development.
Railway construction gained momentum with the 1855 General Railways Act, improving transportation infrastructure.
Population growth remained slow due to high mortality rates and moderate birth rates. Emigration increased in the latter half of the century, and urbanization progressed gradually.