Spain’s 19th Century Political Transformation
Spain’s Transition: Moderate to Liberal Democracy
Reign of Elizabeth II: Moderate Liberalism (1833-1868)
Fernando VII died in 1833, and his daughter Elizabeth II inherited the crown as a minor. Due to her age, she had two regents: her mother, Maria Cristina, and later General Espartero.
Carlist Wars: Dynastic and Political Conflict
The succession of Ferdinand VII led to a dynastic dispute, confronting Don Carlos (the king’s brother, defending absolutism) against the supporters of Isabel II (representing a transition to moderate liberalism). Each side represented distinct political choices. Carlism defended the continuation of absolutism, while Isabel’s side embodied the move towards moderate liberalism, which ultimately defeated the Carlists.
Establishing a Constitutional Monarchy
The Old Regime, based on the king’s absolute power, gradually disappeared with the introduction of the separation of powers. The Queen held executive power, while legislative power was shared between the Cortes (parliament) and the Queen, and judicial power rested with the courts.
Bipartisanship: Moderate vs. Progressive
Liberalism presented two different tendencies represented by the Moderate Party and the Progressive Party. These parties would alternate in government.
Constitutions of the Era
During the regency and reign of Elizabeth II, two constitutions were proclaimed: one in 1837 and another in 1845.
Alternating Power: Moderates and Progressives
The Moderate Decade (1844-1854)
During the Década Moderada, the government had a very conservative character. Progressives staged a coup d’état, known as the Vicalvarada (1854), to seize power.
The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)
The Bienio Progresista saw General O’Donnell lead the government. However, power soon returned to the hands of the Moderates.
Crisis of Moderantismo (Late 1850s – 1868)
Strong repression was exerted against military personnel, politicians, and students. Opponents signed the Pact of Ostend (1866) and conducted a military coup in September 1868, ending Elizabeth II’s reign.
The Six-Year Revolutionary Period (1868-1874)
This period, known as the Sexenio Democrático or Revolucionario, involved several stages:
- The ‘Glorious’ Revolution (1868): Progressive General Prim, as agreed in Ostend, organized the revolution in Cádiz, known as La Gloriosa.
- The Democratic Monarchy of Amadeo I (1871-1873): The chosen form of government was a democratic monarchy, but the Bourbon dynasty was excluded. Therefore, the Cortes elected an Italian candidate supported by Prim, Amadeo of Savoy, as the new King of Spain.
The Restoration: Conservative Liberalism (1874 onwards)
Reign of Alfonso XII (1874-1885)
The Bourbon Restoration marked the return of the Bourbon dynasty to the Spanish throne with Alfonso XII. This signified the recovery of the monarchical system after the parenthesis of the First Republic (1873-1874).
The ‘Turno Pacífico’ System
Introduced by Cánovas del Castillo, this system involved the two major parties peacefully alternating in power, thus avoiding the military pronunciamientos that had characterized the Elizabethan era.
- The Conservative Party: Founded by Cánovas del Castillo, it brought together political moderates. Its social base included the aristocracy, the gentry, and the traditional middle classes.
- The Liberal Party: Founded by Sagasta, it was heir to the ideology of the Sexenio Democrático and the progressives. Its social base included the progressive middle classes.
Regency of Maria Cristina: Political System Crisis (1885-)
In 1885, Alfonso XII died of tuberculosis. Queen Maria Cristina assumed the regency, pregnant with the future Alfonso XIII. During the Regency, the political regime began to show symptoms of crisis due to several problems:
- Regional Problem: From the mid-19th century, in Catalonia, the Basque Country, and Galicia, regionalism developed as a cultural movement demanding the expression of these regions’ own cultures.
- Colonial Problem: The Cuban War of Independence pitted Cuban independence fighters, aided by the United States, against the Spanish state. Anti-independence factions supported Spain because Cuba provided significant commercial benefits to the national economy.