Spain’s 20th Century Crises: 1917 Unrest & Civil War
– The Crisis of 1917
Neutrality during World War I fueled economic expansion and inflation, leading to a loss of purchasing power, deteriorating living conditions for the working classes, and widespread social unrest, influenced by Bolshevism. Furthermore, the recognition of self-determination in peace treaties emboldened regional autonomy movements (e.g., Estat Català led by Macià).
The outcry originated from parties outside the established political ‘Turno’ system, military factions, and labor organizations.
The Military Crisis:
- An excess of officers resulting from colonial wars led to promotions based on war merit, causing friction between Africanist and Peninsular officers.
- Conflict arose over wage values.
- Military discontent channeled through the ‘Juntas de Defensa’ demanded salary increases and seniority as the sole promotion criterion.
- The government dissolved the Juntas, issuing a manifesto in June calling for political ‘regeneration’.
The Political Crisis:
The suspension of constitutional guarantees, closure of the courts, and press censorship prompted the Regionalist League to create a Catalan Parliamentary Assembly. This assembly called on the government to hold elections for a Constituent Assembly to restore state autonomy and invited all Spanish deputies and senators to participate. Despite being banned, the assembly convened on July 19th but was dissolved by the Civil Guard. The assembly movement faltered due to the refusal of royalist forces to participate and disagreements between leftists and regionalists. The ‘Juntas de Defensa’ also rejected the parliament.
Labor Unrest:
Preceded by strikes due to declining real wages, the CNT and UGT unions jointly signed a manifesto in March, calling for a revolutionary general strike. Tensions peaked in 1917 following a railway conflict. The PSOE and UGT called for a general strike to form a provisional government and convene a Constituent Assembly. The strike’s impact was uneven. The government responded with repression, declaring a state of war and arresting the strike committee (Besteiro and Largo Caballero). Fear of a larger revolutionary outbreak inhibited Republicans and bourgeois reformers from proposing significant changes to the Restoration system.
– Main Stages of the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
1st Phase: July 1936 – March 1937: The Battle of Madrid
Military operations were characterized as a ‘war of columns.’ The rebels’ main objective was a swift conquest of Madrid. From Burgos and Valladolid, Mola sent two columns towards the capital, but their advance was halted in the Sierra de Guadarrama. From the south, Yagüe initiated a rapid march towards the center of the peninsula. The road to Madrid seemed open, but the decision to divert forces to Toledo and liberate its Alcázar allowed Republicans to organize a defense. In October, rebel troops reached the outskirts of Madrid, leading to the Battle of Madrid and related battles at Corunna Road, Jarama, and Guadalajara. The offensive’s failure persuaded Franco to abandon the immediate capture of the capital.
2nd Phase: April – November 1937: The Fall of the North
Following the Madrid setback, Franco shifted to a war of attrition. The rebel offensive against Biscay began with artillery support and the massive bombing by the Condor Legion (Guernica). Bilbao fell in June. To relieve pressure on the North, the Republican staff opened new fronts in August at Belchite and Brunete. However, Cantabria and Asturias fell in October.
3rd Phase: December 1937 – November 1938: Teruel Offensive and the Battle of the Ebro
The Popular Front organized an offensive at Teruel to relieve pressure on Madrid. The attack began in December, and the city was captured within days. Franco ordered a counteroffensive, leading to the Battle of Teruel between January and February, which resulted in a Nationalist victory. Franco then launched a general offensive on the Aragon front, reaching the Mediterranean at Vinaròs and dividing Republican Spain into two zones. In June, Negrín initiated an offensive at the Ebro River to relieve pressure on Valencia and reunite the Republican territories. The initial rapid advance was slowed by Franco’s counteroffensive.
4th Phase: December 1938 – March 1939: The Catalonia Campaign and the End of the War
In late 1938, Franco launched an offensive in Catalonia. Barcelona and then Girona were occupied, leading to nearly 500,000 people going into exile. The Republic continued to resist, hoping for a European war to change the Spanish situation. However, divisions within the Republican ranks were severe, and resistance soon crumbled. In March, a coup led by Colonel Casado and the socialist leader Besteiro occurred. On March 28th, Franco’s troops entered Madrid, and the war officially ended on April 1st.