Spain’s Crises: 1898, 1917, and the Progressive Biennium
The Crisis of 1898: The End of an Era
Economic Crisis
In the last decade of the 19th century, Spain faced a severe economic crisis. The trigger was an agrarian crisis, following the collapse of wine production and a decline in corn production due to competition from non-European countries. The country was hit by inflation, currency depreciation, and a collapse in exports. This forced Spain to impose a protectionist policy to safeguard its industrial and agricultural producers.
Social Crisis
The economic crisis caused a rise in unemployment, leading to worker and peasant unrest.
Crisis in International Relations
Spain had been pursuing a policy of avoiding international conflicts. However, it was forced to sell its Pacific islands to Germany. A year earlier, it had lost Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. The sinking of the American battleship Maine served as an excuse for the Americans to declare war. In the Treaty of Paris, Spain formally ceded its empire. This situation provoked strong nationwide pessimism.
Political Crisis
The crisis was exacerbated by the death of two great leaders, Cánovas and Sagasta. The process of modernization and the emergence of new nationalist and socialist forces revealed the archaic nature of the old oligarchic system. The Regenerationist movement emerged, aiming to solve Spain’s problems, recover from its cultural and economic backwardness. This movement influenced the writers of the Generation of ’98.
The Crisis of 1917: A Triple Threat
The political system of the Restoration definitively entered a crisis in 1917, marked by a triple crisis:
Social Crisis
Inflation and economic growth led to strong social conflict. The UGT and CNT unions issued a joint manifesto calling for a revolutionary general strike.
Military Crisis
Discontent arose among low- and medium-ranking officers. They formed *Defense Juntas*, demanding wage increases and opposing promotions based on war merits. They advocated for seniority as the sole criterion for advancement.
Political Crisis
Facing this crisis, the government suspended constitutional freedoms and closed the courts. In response, Catalan nationalists in Barcelona created the Assembly of Parliamentarians, a kind of alternative parliament.
The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)
In 1854, the situation had reached a breaking point. The authoritarian tendencies of the Moderates, who sought to further strengthen the King’s power, and general corruption led to widespread unrest. A group of generals led by O’Donnell, and linked to the Liberal Union (UL), launched a *pronunciamiento* against the government. After initial failure, they sought support from the Progressives, who issued the *Manifiesto de Manzanares*, outlining many Progressive ideals. This sparked popular uprisings, and the revolution triumphed, initiating a two-year period of Progressive government. The UL had significant influence, controlling the degree of reforms. Espartero, the Progressive leader, was head of government, but O’Donnell controlled the key Ministry of War to prevent the movement from becoming too radical.
The new military government carried out a threefold task:
- Removing the popular movement: Suppressing the people who demanded that the Progressives fulfill their promises.
- Political reform: Drafting a new legal framework, the Constitution of 1856, which was never enacted.
- Economic reform: Undertaking reforms to encourage economic growth:
- Law of Disamortization: Primarily affecting the property of municipalities, it sought to obtain resources to eliminate public debt and fund public works.
- General Railway Law: Regulating construction and offering incentives to companies involved, primarily benefiting foreign companies that invested heavily in railway construction.