Spain’s Crisis of 1898 to the Second Republic: A Historical Timeline
Crisis of 1898
In 1895, a new uprising for independence broke out in Cuba. It lasted until 1898, when the United States declared war on Spain after the battleship Maine sank. Spain’s defeat meant the loss of its last colonies. This was known as the “Disaster of ’98”. It caused frustration among the political class and pessimism among intellectuals, and it spurred the emergence of Regenerationism.
Alfonso XIII’s Reign
In 1902, Alfonso XIII ascended to the throne. The 1876 Constitution remained in force, maintaining the system of *turnismo* (alternation of power between the two main parties). New leaders attempted to reform political life, and Maura sought to end *caciquismo* (political bossism).
- In 1909, the Tragic Week occurred, a popular uprising sparked by the sending of troops to Morocco during a crisis.
- In 1917, military, political, and union protests coincided.
- Between 1919 and 1923, social violence erupted.
Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship
Following the defeat at Annual, the left called for an investigation to determine responsibility. In 1923, Primo de Rivera, with the king’s consent, staged a coup, suspended the Constitution, and dissolved the Cortes. He was criticized by the CNT (National Confederation of Labor) and the Communist Party, but he received collaboration from the Socialists and the UGT (General Union of Workers). His regime was sustained thanks to the economic prosperity of the 1920s. However, by 1927, the regime faced increasing criticism, and the king withdrew his support. In 1930, Republicans, Socialists, and Catalans signed the Pact of San Sebastian.
The 1929 Ibero-American Exposition
The highlight was the Ibero-American Exposition held in Seville in 1929. Inaugurated in May, it saw the participation of many American countries. It aimed to improve trade relations with Latin American countries, create jobs, promote tourism, and modernize the city.
The Provisional Government and the 1931 Constitution
The Provisional Government was formed by the parties that had signed the Pact of San Sebastian, presided over by the Cordoban Niceto Alcalá-Zamora. The Cortes drafted the 1931 Constitution, establishing a democratic regime. Its new features included:
- Recognition of liberal freedoms (freedom of expression, divorce).
- Universal suffrage without distinction of sex.
- A secular state, with no official religion.
- Decentralized territorial organization, recognizing the possibility of creating autonomous regions.
- Emphasis on social welfare, allowing the government to expropriate property and encouraging the enhancement of public education.
On the streets, there were incidents and conspiracies against the Republic. Alcalá-Zamora became President of the Republic, and Manuel Azaña became Prime Minister.
Reforms of the Second Republic
- Agrarian Reform: Aimed to transform the agrarian structure to improve productivity and the livelihoods of farmers. Large estates were expropriated, but the Institute of Agrarian Reform (IRA) lacked sufficient funds to achieve its goals.
- Autonomy was granted to Catalonia, leading to the creation of the Generalitat.
- Military Reform: Officers were required to swear allegiance to the Republic, and unpaid retirement was offered to those who refused. The reform also aimed to reduce the number of officers.
- Labor Reform: Minimum wages and accident insurance were established.
- Educational Reform: Education was seen as a means to improve society. 10,000 new schools were built.
- Special provisions were made for civil marriage and divorce.
Opposition to the Second Republic
The government faced opposition from large landowners, the army (which considered the reforms too radical), and the Church. In August 1932, a coup attempt led by General Sanjurgo failed. Anarchists occupied farms. In September 1933, Azaña resigned, and new elections were held.