Spain’s Democratic Experiment (1868-1874): Revolution to Republic
Spain’s Democratic Experiment (1868-1874)
The Six-Year Democracy and the First Republic
1. The Revolution of 1868
Several factors led to the 1868 Revolution:
- Economic: The Catalan textile industry declined due to the American Civil War’s impact on cotton supply. Railway investments proved unprofitable, the stock market plummeted, and subsistence crises occurred in 1866 and 1867.
- Political: Opposition to moderate governments and Queen Isabella II strengthened, leading to the Pact of Ostend (1866) between liberals, democrats, republicans, unionists, and workers.
- Social: Instability and discontent fueled popular demands for universal suffrage and the abolition of unpopular taxes.
On September 17, a naval revolt in Cadiz sparked the revolution. Revolutionary committees mobilized popular support, with the Volunteers of Liberty playing a key role. Government forces were defeated at Alcolea (Córdoba) on September 29. Queen Isabella II fled to France. General Serrano entered Madrid on October 3, and the Provincial Board granted him power to form a provisional government.
The provisional government dissolved the revolutionary committees and disarmed the Volunteers, sometimes using force. New provincial councils were appointed to maintain order. Key measures included recognizing universal suffrage, freedom of the press, assembly, and association, and replacing excise taxes with personal taxation. However, the Cuban tax remained due to the ongoing uprising that began in October 1868 (the “Grito de Yara”).
By November, institutional normalcy was restored. Elections for the Constituent Cortes were called for January under universal suffrage, amidst debate about the future of the state—monarchy or republic. The pro-monarchy bloc won a majority.
2. The Constitution of 1869
Adopted in June 1869, the new constitution was based on democratic liberalism:
- National sovereignty with universal suffrage elections.
- Broad rights and freedoms, including assembly, expression, association, inviolability of domicile, voting, and education.
- Clear division of powers, with the legislature holding exclusive power to enact laws. The king retained the power to appoint ministers and dissolve parliament.
- A democratic parliamentary monarchy, rejecting the republican model.
- Locally elected mayors with public deliberations and budget votes.
- Recognition of religious freedom, though without separating church and state.
Serrano became regent, and Prim, head of government. Laws were enacted to strengthen the new regime, including laws on public order, elections, penal code, judiciary, criminal procedure, provincial administration, and civil marriage.
Amid economic crisis, social instability, the Cuban war, and republican and anarchist activity, Prim sought a new king. Amadeo of Savoy was eventually chosen.
3. The Reign of Amadeo I (1871-1873)
Amadeo I faced challenges, especially after Prim’s assassination. Despite his good intentions, his inexperience, unfamiliarity with Spain, and lack of support hampered his reign. He confronted the escalating Cuban war and the Third Carlist War.
Political instability led to six governments and two general elections during his reign. The breakup of the coalition that had supported the revolution marked a crisis for the democratic monarchy.
By early 1873, the situation was dire. Republican disaffection, Carlist and Alfonsino monarchist opposition, the Cuban war, social unrest, and hostility from the clergy and aristocracy led Amadeo I to abdicate.
4. The First Republic (1873-1874)
Upon Amadeo I’s abdication, the Cortes proclaimed the Republic, contravening the 1869 Constitution. The Republic lacked broad support, facing opposition from the ruling classes. Internal divisions between federalist and unitary republicans further weakened the regime.
Four presidents—Figueras, Pi, Salmerón, and Castelar—governed during the Republic’s brief existence. They struggled to consolidate the Republic, address social and economic crises, manage the Cuban and Carlist wars, and suppress the Cantonalist rebellion and monarchist conspiracies.
Castelar reinforced authority and slowed Carlist advances. However, on January 2, 1874, his government lost a vote of confidence. General Pavia’s coup ended the Republic, though it formally lasted until December under Serrano’s interim government, before the Bourbon Restoration under Alfonso XII.