Spain’s Democratic Sexenio: Revolution to Restoration (1868-1874)
Spain’s Democratic Sexenio (1868-1874)
1. The Revolution of 1868
1.1 The Glorious Revolution
The period between the Glorious Revolution, which ousted Isabel II, and the Bourbon Restoration under Alfonso XII, witnessed diverse regimes and governments.
1.2 Development of the Revolution
a) The Military Coup
Admiral Topete’s fleet pronouncement in Cádiz Bay, joined by Prim, Serrano, and Dulce, initiated the revolution. Their manifesto, outlining the insurrection’s rationale, resonated across Spain. Royalist troops under the Marquis of Novaliches were defeated by Serrano’s Andalusian rebels. Isabel II fled to France, marking the Glorious Revolution’s triumph.
b) Popular Support: The Juntas
Until the Constituent Assembly convened, political power resided with the Juntas. They organized civilian life, armed citizens through the Volunteers of Liberty, and engaged in political conflicts with emerging power figures.
1.3 The Provisional Government
General Serrano formed a provisional government in Madrid, including Figuerola, Ruiz Zorrilla, Topete, Sagasta, and Prim. Key measures involved dissolving local councils, reclaiming Volunteer of Liberty weapons, appointing new councils and members, and ensuring political control. Basic freedoms—speech, education, and religion—were introduced. Free trade was enacted, and the consumption tax abolished, but conscription remained due to the Cuban conflict.
January elections for the Constituent Cortes, under universal male suffrage, were called. Progressive Unionists and monarchist Democrats issued the Manifesto of the Cimbri, advocating a democratic monarchy. Other Democrats, excluded from the government, favored republicanism and federalism, forming the Federal Democratic Republican Party under Francesc Pi i Maragall.
2. The Constitution of 1869
Approved in June 1869, this constitution, Spain’s most liberal yet, guaranteed universal male suffrage, national sovereignty, a democratic monarchy, and religious freedom. It expanded the bill of rights significantly.
- System Performance: Two equally powerful chambers. Congress elected by direct suffrage.
- Monarchy: King exercises executive power through ministers, summons and dissolves chambers.
- Jury: Jury trials for political and common crimes.
- Local Government: Recognizes municipal self-governance.
Carlists and Republicans opposed this constitution. General Serrano became regent, and Prim headed the government.
3. The Reign of Amadeus of Savoy (1871-1873)
3.1 The Regency of Serrano and Prim’s Government
Legislative Measures:
- Electoral law: Developed court-adopted principles.
- Civil Marriage Act: Allowed non-church marriages.
- Judiciary Act: Established judicial system.
- Penal Code reform.
Economic Measures: Free trade measures were signed. Financial problems necessitated using mining assets through sales or concessions. The peseta became the new currency.
Social and Political Challenges: Mobilizations, uprisings, riots, and revolutionary actions persisted. The government faced:
- September 1869 riots by Federalists and Republicans.
- Cuban uprising.
- General public dissatisfaction.
- The search for a new king.
3.2 Issues: Cuba, Social Conflict, and Carlist Insurrection
Amadeus of Savoy’s second year saw escalating problems:
- Worsening Cuban war.
- Carlist insurrection.
- Republican uprising attempt in El Ferrol.
- Rising labor movement, alarming the middle and upper classes.
- Congressional showdown over abolishing slavery.
3.3 The Abdication of Amadeo
Amadeo abdicated when the government appointed General Hidalgo de Quintana as Captain General of Catalonia. Officers threatened mass resignation, and Ruiz Zorrilla asked the king to dissolve the body, asserting civilian authority. The king refused, Ruiz Zorrilla introduced a no-confidence motion, and upon winning, the king abdicated.
4. The First Republic (1873-1874)
The First Republic’s proclamation contravened the Constitution. The monarchy was exhausted. Radical Republicans and a Republican minority established the Republic. Estanislao Figueras led the first government, recognized only by the US and Switzerland. The regime lacked sustainable political and social policies.
Social support was scarce and conflicting. The Republic inherited a chaotic economic situation. Politically, a consistent program was lacking. Key problems included:
- Republican divisions, causing political instability.
- Escalating Cuban conflict.
- Third Carlist War.
- Cantonalist insurrection.
- Growing labor movement.
4.1 Estanislao Figueras: The Unitary Republic
Figueras’s government of Republicans and Radicals faced inevitable confrontation.
4.2 Francisco Pi y Maragall: The Federal Republic
Pi y Maragall’s presidency saw a draft constitution (the Constitution of 1873), but it wasn’t approved. It proposed:
- Territorial organization based on 17 federal states.
- Church-state separation.
- Expanded right of association.
The regime faced various conflicts:
a) Economic Crisis and Social Unrest: Strikes multiplied, state bankruptcy deepened, stock prices fell, and depositors withdrew funds. Andalusian laborers occupied farms. Internationalism peaked, with anarchist uprisings aiming for revolution. The International declined after these failures and its 1874 outlawing.
b) Cantonalist Insurrection: This aimed to organize a Federal Republic from voluntarily federating municipalities. Diverse political forces participated. The movement had profound social and economic aims, distinct from anarchism, though the labor movement played a role in episodes like the Alcoy uprising. Pi y Maragall resigned, opposing forceful suppression. The movement’s consequences included more conservative republican positions and the federal idea’s destruction.
c) Third Carlist War (1872-1876): Fought between Carlists supporting Carlos VII and the governments of Amadeo I, the First Republic, and Alfonso XII, primarily in Basque provinces and Navarre. Many Isabel II supporters joined the Carlists after the Republic’s proclamation.
d) Ten Years’ War in Cuba (1868-1878): The first Cuban war of independence. It began with the Grito de Yara and ended with the Pact of Zanjón, which didn’t guarantee Cuban independence or abolish slavery.
e) Alphonsine Conspiracies: Isabel II ceded throne rights to her son Alfonso, both in exile. The bourgeoisie, aristocracy, army generals, and officials sought a Bourbon restoration, plotting to overthrow the Republic.
4.3 Nicolás Salmerón
Salmerón, supported by the army, aimed to restore order. He suppressed the First International and Carlists. His refusal to sign a death warrant led to his resignation.
4.4 Emilio Castelar
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Hunger is holding a conservative shift in the republic. Practice a policy to restore national unity and social order sought by the bourgeoisie and the nobility. Courts were give extraordinary powers to deal with the situation, its policy impinge on the solution of the Cuban problem in removing the remains of Cantonalist movement, and the Carlist conflict finally achieve social peace in the country. At dawn on January 3, 1874, the courts look with amazement at the arrival of the forces of General Manuel Pavia, which dissolved the Congress of Deputies.
4.5. Serrano interim government: the coup of Pavia (January 1974) Martínez Campos’s coup in Sagunto (December 74).
Manuel Pavia, who had revolted with the complicity of many other generals, had no personal desire to stay with the power and immediately convened a meeting of leading military commanders and senior leaders of all parties. After the coup of General Pavia, Serrano assumes executive power, with some uncertainty regarding the model of the system. The Government of Republican Serrano Unit, soon put up a legislative task aimed at restoring social order and give assurances to conservatives. To cope with the situation of bankruptcy caused by the Carlist Wars and Cuba, the Bank of Spain was transformed into the National Bank is thus ensured the existence of a bank that lends money to the government. The restoration of the Bourbon monarchy was consummated when the generalArsenio Martínez Campos proclaimed King Alfonso XII. Sagasta General Serrano and take the path of exile. Both opposed the return of the Bourbons. In Madrid is a government-regency led by Canovas del Castillo, with the support of former Union and Progress.