Spain’s Democratic Transition: From Coup to Modernity
The Challenges of the Early 1980s
In the early 1980s, sectors within the Spanish army remained resistant to the ongoing democratic reforms. Terrorism, the legalization of the PCE (Communist Party of Spain), and the autonomy process were met with criticism by some military figures who believed that armed intervention was justified to restore the previous political order.
Following Adolfo Suárez’s resignation as Prime Minister in January 1981, Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo was nominated as his successor. During his investiture vote in Congress, a group of Civil Guards led by Lieutenant Colonel Tejero initiated a coup attempt, seizing the government and MPs. Simultaneously, Milans del Bosch declared a state of war in Valencia. King Juan Carlos’s televised address in defense of the constitutional order proved crucial in thwarting the coup.
The Socialist Era (1982-1996)
In the October 1982 elections, Felipe González and the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party) secured a landslide victory. The PSOE governments implemented a series of reforms:
- Economic Restructuring: Aimed at modernizing the economy and preparing for Spain’s entry into the European Economic Community (EEC). This involved closing uncompetitive industries, particularly in the Basque steel and shipbuilding sectors, leading to increased social unrest due to rising unemployment.
- Educational Reform: Introduction of a new education law, the LOGSE (1990), extending compulsory education to age 16.
- Social Reforms: Partial decriminalization of abortion and military reform to mitigate the risk of future coups.
- Entry into the EEC and NATO: Spain successfully joined the EEC and, after a referendum, remained in NATO, despite the PSOE’s initial campaign promise to withdraw.
The second socialist government (1986-1989) oversaw strong economic growth, fueled by EEC funds. Infrastructure, healthcare, education, and social services improved. However, economic restructuring efforts strained relations with unions, culminating in a general strike in 1988.
The third term (1989-1993) saw Spain emerge as a modern country, but was marred by corruption scandals and the GAL scandal, involving a clandestine group that waged a “dirty war” against ETA.
In the 1993 elections, the PSOE lost its absolute majority and required parliamentary support from Convergence and Union. The People’s Party (PP), led by José María Aznar, emerged as the main opposition force.
The Aznar Years (1996-2000)
The PP, under Aznar, won the 1996 elections. Aznar’s government implemented a liberal economic policy focused on deficit reduction and private sector growth, aiming to meet the Maastricht Treaty’s convergence criteria for joining the Euro.
The ETA terrorist group’s assassination of Miguel Ángel Blanco, a PP councilor, in 1997 sparked a massive public outcry and a firm stance against ETA by the government. The Lizarra-Estella Pact of 1998, a pro-independence agreement among Basque nationalist forces, was followed by an ETA ceasefire, which ultimately collapsed.
In the 2000 elections, the PP gained an absolute majority.
Cultural Boom
The establishment of a democratic regime with freedom of expression led to a surge in cultural production in the final decades of the 20th century. Notable figures emerged in literature (Antonio Muñoz Molina, Manuel Vázquez Montalbán, Javier Marías, Eduardo Mendoza), visual arts (Tapies, Barceló, Antonio Saura), architecture (Santiago Calatrava, Ricardo Bofill, Rafael Moneo), and cinema (Pedro Almodóvar, Trueba, Amenábar, Garci). The mass media experienced significant growth, with the internet entering homes in the late 1990s.