Spain’s Demographic and Cultural Shift (1867-1900)
Demography and Society in Late 19th-Century Spain
In the last third of the nineteenth century, Spain’s population increased significantly, from 18.5 million to 26 million, mirroring a trend seen across Europe. The areas of greatest population increase were the Basque Country and Catalonia, while regions like Leon and Galicia experienced population decline. Two-thirds of the population lived in rural areas, where precarious conditions, coupled with the overall population increase, fueled emigration. The preferred destination for these emigrants was America (primarily Argentina and Mexico), often with the intention of eventually returning. This migration particularly affected the Cantabrian region.
Social Structure
Class differences remained prominent, with economic power concentrated in the hands of a dominant sector consisting of large rural landowners and the gentry. This group engaged in intermarriage among large families (inbreeding), creating a network that supported the regime through a system of *caciquismo* (political patronage). The middle classes were primarily found in cities, comprising professionals, intellectuals, and the petty bourgeoisie, along with some landowning peasants. The lower classes, both in rural and urban areas, consisted mainly of employees and laborers.
Culture and Education
Education remained largely under the control of the Catholic Church, which shaped educational precepts and trained the country’s elite. Some teachers, refusing to compromise their academic freedom, were expelled. Others, like Giner de los Ríos, Castelar, Azcárate, and Salmerón, resigned their positions in protest.
The Free Institution of Education
These teachers, acting under the provisions of the 1876 Constitution that allowed for the creation of non-religious schools, established the Free Institution of Education (Institución Libre de Enseñanza) in 1876. Laureano Figuerola served as its first rector, with the collaboration of Azcárate, Salmerón, Joaquín Costa, and others. This institution, rooted in Krausist philosophy, promoted educational renewal based on rationalism, tolerance, and freedom, with a genuine desire for social change. The Free Institution of Education quickly gained acceptance, establishing affiliates in other provinces and attracting leading intellectuals of the time, either as teachers or contributors.
When Sagasta came to power in 1881, he reinstated the expelled professors. However, some, like Giner de los Ríos, refused and continued their work at the Institution. The development of the Free Institution of Education clashed with the Catholic Church over academic freedom, particularly as students began to demand educational reforms.
Literacy and Journalism
Despite the cultural developments of the century (Romanticism, Realism, the Generation of ’98), Spanish society maintained a high illiteracy rate, approximately 60% at the end of the century. Interestingly, this high illiteracy rate did not hinder the development of journalism. Newspapers were read aloud in public spaces like cafes, halls, salons, and even factories, where a designated reader would share the news while others worked.
The last third of the 19th century represents the most brilliant period of Spanish journalism, with newspapers such as the liberal “La Época,” the informative “La Correspondencia de España,” and the satirical “La Flaca.” Politicians of this era often relied on the support of specific newspapers to disseminate their speeches and defend their ideas.
The Jurisdiction Act
A major challenge arose at the end of the century with the Jurisdiction Act. This law classified offenses against the army as matters of military jurisdiction, leading to the establishment of military tribunals to try civilians accused of such offenses. This law significantly curtailed press freedom and contributed to the decline of the previously flourishing journalistic landscape.