Spain’s Early 20th Century Crises: From Colonial Loss to Dictatorship
1898 War with the United States
This event is also known as the 3rd War of Cuba (1895-1898). Cuban exiles in the United States returned with weapons and American support to overthrow the Spaniards. The United States went to war with Spain after the battleship Maine exploded, allegedly due to a Spanish mine. The author advocates caution before entering battles with a potentially weak army but emphasizes acting decisively if necessary. Spain, despite its diminished empire, aimed to avoid further international embarrassment.
Water Policy
This historical context coincides with Spain’s loss of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. This led to pessimism in Spain, as it was difficult to accept its decline as a major power. Antonio Maura, the ruler at this time, faced a country with limited resources. The author argues that drought and water mismanagement exacerbated Spain’s economic struggles, particularly impacting agriculture, which was crucial despite urban migration and industrialization.
Report of the Institute of Social Reforms on the Status of Andalusia
This report occurred during the reign of Alfonso XIII, under the liberal political party led by Antonio Maura. This era saw attempts at significant changes, with Maura aiming for a ‘revolution from above’ by introducing new politicians and mobilizing the masses against the old elites. He also sought to eliminate electoral rigging. The text emphasizes the need for drastic measures to alleviate peasant famines and high unemployment in Andalusia, advocating for worker protection.
Basque Nationalist Party Manifesto
This period corresponds to Spain’s regeneration era. Arana’s Basque separatist nationalism emerged amidst social, cultural, and political upheaval. Basque society was influenced by the decline of the old regime, the rise of liberal centralism and secularism, the flawed democratic system, the crisis of Carlism, the loss of charters, the crisis of Spanish nationalism, colonial policies, the spread of racist theories, the beginnings of the industrial revolution, and the rise of socialism. The manifesto defended the regeneration of the Basque people, fearing the disappearance of their identity and the imposition of Castilian customs if they didn’t protect their historical privileges.
Founding Congress of the CNT
In 1910, the anarchist CNT (National Confederation of Workers) was founded, although not all members were anarchists. Anarchists chose not to call themselves such, preferring ‘Pure Unionists.’ They lacked a political party but aimed to defend workers’ rights, seeking better working conditions and wages for those struggling to survive.
Manifesto of Military Defense Boards
This text is situated at the end of the Bourbon Restoration, before the dictatorship. Spain faced a triple crisis in 1917: military, political, and socio-economic. The author criticizes the Restoration system, blaming it for Spain’s problems, citing issues like political turnismo (alternating parties), the influence of caciques (political bosses), widespread corruption, and the Moroccan problem, which destabilized the army. The author identifies demagoguery, cronyism, bureaucracy, and anarchy as the consequences of Spain’s flawed governance.
The 1921 Annual Disaster
This text addresses the aftermath of the Battle of Annual in 1921, where Spain lost its North African possessions. The author, echoing public opinion, blames General Manuel Fernández Silvestre for the defeat, citing his ill-prepared army and inadequate water supply. The army’s retreat to Melilla and the loss of 800 soldiers marked a significant blow, reminiscent of the 1898 disaster. This defeat triggered a political crisis and fueled demands for change, closing the regeneration phase that began with the loss of American colonies and now ending with the loss of Africa.
Manifesto Primo de Rivera
On September 13, 1923, Miguel Primo de Rivera, Captain General of Catalonia, led a coup with military support, prompted by the upcoming parliamentary debate on the Moroccan problem and the army’s role. The monarchy, under Alfonso XIII, faced a crisis due to industrialization, rising nationalism, and the inability of traditional parties to establish a stable democracy. On September 14, the legitimate government requested the removal of rebel generals and the convening of Parliament, but the king delayed, ultimately supporting the coup. With backing from the Catalan bourgeoisie and Andalusian landowners, Alfonso XIII appointed Primo de Rivera as military dictator on September 15. The dictatorship, opposed by labor unions and Republicans, was enforced through censorship and repression. A Military Directorate, composed of nine generals and an admiral, was formed to ‘restore order’ before returning power to civilians. The constitution was suspended, councils dissolved, political parties banned, urban militias created, and a state of war declared. Primo de Rivera presented a populist image, criticizing corrupt politicians and promising simple solutions.
Berenguer Error
This period occurred during the dictatorship of General Berenguer, known as the Dictablanda. Primo de Rivera resigned due to lack of support from army captains. Alfonso XIII tasked Berenguer with restoring constitutional normalcy and ending the dictatorship. However, no political parties cooperated with Berenguer, as they opposed both the dictatorship and any association with it. Republicans and intellectuals like Ortega y Gasset opposed the monarchy, blaming Alfonso XIII for the dictatorship. Ortega y Gasset argued that the king exploited Spanish ignorance, enabling Primo de Rivera’s rule. Berenguer’s attempt to restore normalcy without acknowledging the past seven years and lacking political support further damaged the monarchy’s image, appearing as a continuation of the previous disastrous dictatorship.