Spain’s Early 20th Century: Political Instability and Primo de Rivera’s Coup
However, political parties were divided into two trends: aliadófilos (Liberals and Democrats) and Germanophiles (Conservatives). Economic prosperity, fueled by supplying raw materials to warring countries, initially favored neutrality. This led to industrial expansion and capital accumulation but also higher prices and a decline in living standards, causing social unrest. By 1917, the Restoration political system faced a serious crisis. A military crisis arose as the government sought to reduce the number of officers and reform the promotion system, which favored those with war merits in Africa. This led to the creation of Boards of Defense throughout the army and demands for corporate autonomy against political favoritism. The political crisis intensified when Cambó invited all senators and Spanish deputies to a Parliamentary Assembly in Barcelona. It aimed to form an interim government and achieve autonomy for Catalonia, but it failed. Finally, a social crisis erupted after a general strike launched by labor movements (UGT and CNT), demanding political change and a democratic republic.
Republicans and nationalists, unable to improve the political situation and suffering from internal divisions, lost support. Meanwhile, the UGT and CNT expanded. The CNT experienced internal splits, with a moderate faction led by Ángel Pestaña and a more radical, terrorist-leaning faction led by Durruti. Another factor contributing to the decline of the liberal system was the conflict in Andalusia, where landowner property and lives were denounced. Mobilization intensified from 1918 (three years after the Bolshevik Revolution). The situation deteriorated further after the disastrous defeat led by General Silvestre in the Rif, resulting in the loss of over 10,000 soldiers (the Annual Tragedy). This had serious consequences and forced the government to develop the “Picasso dossier” to prosecute those responsible. Before the report could be presented in Parliament, General Primo de Rivera staged a coup, imposing a military dictatorship.
In conclusion, the liberal regime’s decline began in the early 20th century. The failure of Regenerationist attempts, the regime’s inability to democratize, the weakness of political parties, the exacerbation of social conflict, and the new colonial problem in Morocco led to an authoritarian solution: General Primo de Rivera’s coup.
The Crisis of 1898 fueled a widespread desire to change the discredited political system of the Restoration. The early years of Alfonso XIII’s reign were marked by attempts by new Conservative and Liberal Party leaders (Maura and Canalejas) to reform the system “from above.” The final crisis of the Restoration began in 1918-1923. Socio-political instability, the new colonial problem in the Protectorate of Morocco, and the growing influence of military leadership favored General Primo de Rivera’s coup.
In the early twentieth century, the Restoration political system remained in effect. The Conservative and Liberal parties alternated power peacefully. Alfonso XIII’s accession to the throne in 1902 coincided with the onset of political instability within the two dynastic parties due to the loss of their leaders, Cánovas and Sagasta. Both parties elected new leaders: Antonio Maura (Conservative) and José Canalejas (Liberal), both with regeneracionista ideologies. During Maura’s “long government” (1907-1909), a project of “revolution from above” was launched. Laws like the Electoral Act, intended to end political corruption, were enacted but failed, as did the Local Government Act. José Canalejas undertook a more significant attempt to regenerate the system, aiming for democracy and broadening the regime’s base. He continued to change laws, such as the “Padlock Law,” a step towards separating church and state, which faced strong opposition from the Catholic sector. A draft law established compulsory military service without distinction in wartime. A progressive consumption tax replaced the tax on urban incomes. Following demands from the Lliga, the Law of Associations was approved in Parliament in 1912. Both governments also implemented changes in the economy and social policies (the right to strike, improved working and living conditions) and promoted domestic industry.
Spain’s colonial policy focused on North Africa, specifically the Rif area, a rugged terrain inhabited by Berber tribes hostile to foreigners. The government sent reinforcements from mainland Spain and mobilized reservists, many of whom were married with children. The embarkation of troops at the port of Barcelona sparked a protest movement that radicalized after news of the battle of Gurugú, leading to a spontaneous, unplanned uprising known as the Tragic Week of 1909, which resulted in the burning of churches and convents. The government harshly repressed the revolt, causing many deaths. After World War I broke out, Spain declared neutrality due to its diplomatic isolation and military weakness.