Spain’s Early 20th Century Turmoil: Political Instability, Social Unrest, and the Moroccan Crisis

Posted on Nov 25, 2024 in History

1. Alfonso XIII and the Depletion of the Political System

1) The Restoration Crisis during the Reign of Alfonso XIII (1902-1931)

In May 1902, Alfonso XIII came of age and began his personal reign. The period between 1902 and 1923 (the beginning of the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera) witnessed a permanent political crisis. The causes of the instability of successive governments were deep and manifold:

  • A) The King’s personality: He played an active role in politics, was surrounded by the most conservative sector of the generals, and failed to understand the country’s evolving needs, which discredited the monarchy.
  • B) The division of the turno parties, the disappearance of historical leaders (Cánovas, Sagasta), and the emergence of new Conservative (Maura) and Liberal (Canalejas and Romanones) leaders.
  • C) The progressive loss of influence of caciquismo.
  • D) Division in the parliamentary process and the emergence of political parties outside the Restoration system, such as Socialists and Republicans.
  • E) The rise of social struggles, evidenced by strikes in Barcelona and Bilbao.
  • F) Growth of nationalist movements in Catalonia and the Basque Country, the latter spurred on by Sabino Arana with a Catholic autonomist stance.
  • G) Military problems, moral consequences of the disaster in Morocco, and the degradation of the Army itself.

2) Reclamation and Revitalization Efforts by Maura and Canalejas

The regeneracionista doctrine, initiated by Joaquín Costa, proposed the revitalization of the state through education and the economy. His motto was “Pantry and School.” Initially supported by the middle classes, after 1907, Costa’s ideas were favored by the oligarchies. The second regeneration was led by Antonio Maura, the Conservative Party leader, who supported regeneration from above. Maura’s reforms included:

  • A) Creation of the National Welfare Institute in 1908.
  • B) Legislation on Sunday rest, reducing working hours for women and children.
  • C) Attempts to combat caciques with a Local Government Act promoting municipal autonomy.

Economically, Maura favored protectionism with a Law for the Protection of National Industry. He formed a right-wing bloc supported by the Church, which led to the formation of a leftist bloc in 1909 and, ultimately, Maura’s downfall. Following the turno system, José Canalejas of the Liberal Party took over. He sought to modernize the parliamentary system but was assassinated by an anarchist in 1912. Canalejas resolved a complex situation with the Church through the Padlock Act of 1911, which prohibited the establishment of new religious orders. Regarding Catalan regionalism, he advocated for the establishment of the Mancomunitat of Catalonia, which was approved in 1914.

3) The Crisis of 1909: Tragic Week

The events of the so-called Tragic Week in Barcelona were triggered by several factors: the success of nationalism, labor mobilization, and the growth of republicanism. Anarchist ideology dominated among workers, leading to the creation of Solidaridad Obrera in 1907. Anti-clerical and anti-military sentiments were on the rise. The proximate causes of the Tragic Week were:

  • A) Opposition to Maura’s policy and his declared support for the clergy. “Maura, no!” became the rallying cry in Barcelona.
  • B) The Crisis of Morocco and the call-up of reservists from Madrid and Barcelona on July 18. Workers’ anger erupted, and Solidaridad Obrera, joined by the UGT, called a general strike in Barcelona on July 26. This coincided with the disaster of the Barranco del Lobo, with 1,200 casualties. The Tragic Week resulted in 116 deaths, 1,500 prisoners, and 5 executions, including Francisco Ferrer, accused of instigating the events and founder of the Escuela Moderna.

4) The Impact of World War I

Internationally, Alfonso XIII’s reign coincided with the arms race leading to World War I (1914-1918), which impacted Spain’s economy. In August 1914, the Spanish government declared neutrality, aware of its weak diplomatic, economic, and military position. Public opinion was divided between “aliadófilos” and “pro-Germans.” Spain became a supplier to the warring countries, experiencing an economic boom but also negative social consequences, such as food shortages.

5) The Crisis of 1917

This crisis was caused by the convergence of three crises, all aiming to change the system:

  • A) Military Crisis: Internal military problems, technical incompetence, and lack of budget, exacerbated by the government’s decision to prioritize rapid military promotions in Morocco. Officers began forming Juntas, leading to the Manifesto of the Juntas on June 1, 1917, which gave an ultimatum to the government. The government resigned on June 8, and the king appointed a new government that bowed to the army’s demands.
  • B) Political Crisis: Related to the impossibility of integrating opposition parties into the Restoration’s system. Opposition parties had been demanding the reopening of the Cortes since 1917. On July 19, around 70 deputies and senators met and decided to demand a change of government, forming three committees.
  • C) Social Crisis: Connected to the labor movement, which was inspired by the overthrow of the Czar in Russia. Socialists sought more than just a political makeover of the system. In early 1917, the UGT and CNT published a manifesto against the government and triggered a series of strikes. Leaders Caballero and Julián Besteiro were imprisoned. On July 19, a railway strike was launched in Valencia, and on August 10, unions called a general train strike nationwide. The government’s response was harsh, with union leaders sentenced to death on September 29, though they were pardoned a few months later.

6) The Moroccan Question and Domestic and International Implications

In the late 19th century, Morocco was a territory with weak governance, bordering on anarchy. Foreign powers established a protectorate over it in a Franco-Spanish agreement of 1904. In 1906, the Algeciras Conference granted France and Spain joint protectorate over the Sultanate of Morocco, with Spain administering the Rif region. Spanish companies began exploiting mineral resources there. In July 1909, Spanish workers were attacked by Rif tribesmen. Maura decided to send soldiers and reservists from Barcelona and Madrid, provoking widespread protests during the Tragic Week in Barcelona and the military disaster of El Barranco del Lobo, with 1,200 casualties. In 1911, Liberal leader José Canalejas ordered the occupation of Asilah, Larache, and Alcazarquivir. The intensification of the war in Morocco exhausted the regime. In 1919, Spain launched an expansion policy in the protectorate, leading to the Disaster of Annual, where thirteen thousand men were killed in a battle against Abd-el-Krim. This disaster caused a public outcry against the war, leading to large protests and the formation of a military commission to investigate the events, resulting in the Picasso Report. However, no political or criminal responsibility was assigned. On October 1, 1923, General Miguel Primo de Rivera staged a coup and established a military dictatorship.