Spain’s Generation of ’98: Literary Renewal and Crisis

Posted on Apr 2, 2025 in Philology

Generation of ’98

The Generation of ’98 is a literary trend from the late nineteenth century, created by a group of authors who attempted to renew literature in Spain. They addressed two fundamental issues: the decline of Spain (manifested by the loss of the colonial empire: Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, and the defeat by the U.S. in 1898) and existential angst.

Although there has been much debate about the appropriateness of this name (as writers like Baroja did not accept their inclusion), it is generally considered to include Miguel de Unamuno, Ramiro de Maeztu, Azorín (José Martínez Ruiz), Pío Baroja, Ramón del Valle-Inclán, and Antonio Machado.

Characteristics of the Generation

According to the tenets of Julius Petersen, defended by authors such as Pedro Salinas, this group should be considered generational, having the following characteristics:

  1. Birth within a few years: An eleven-year separation between the oldest and youngest members.
  2. Similar training: Largely self-taught, shaping their intellect through extensive reading.
  3. Shared relationships: Frequented the same literary circles and collaborated in the same newspapers and magazines.
  4. Shared experience of a key event: The loss of colonial rule in 1898.
  5. Influence of an intellectual guide: Friedrich Nietzsche, according to Salinas.
  6. A shared generational language: Modernism, though adapted individually.
  7. Reaction against the previous generation: They reacted against Realism and Naturalism.

Literary Focus and Style

  • They primarily wrote prose (essays and novels).
  • They viewed Mariano José de Larra as their prose predecessor and Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer as their poetry predecessor.
  • They held a critical purpose, focusing on reflection and analysis of Spanish society and human problems.
  • Their style was often somber, stark, and concise, reflecting the Castilian landscape.

Themes of the Generation of ’98

Key themes included:

  • The ‘Problem of Spain’: Focused on Castile as the cradle and essence of Spain.
  • Ideology: Often anti-bourgeois, with leanings towards socialism and anarchism initially.
  • Modernization: A call for Europeanization and modernization of Spain.

Pío Baroja (1872-1956)

Pío Baroja was a prominent novelist influenced by Arthur Schopenhauer and Friedrich Nietzsche. He adopted a critical perspective on reality, viewing it as hostile.

Baroja’s literature reflects his existential pessimism and skepticism, often sounding bitter and disappointed. He did not propose political, religious, or philosophical solutions because he did not believe in them. Frequently, his characters are confused and unsuccessful individuals, experiencing a weariness of life that can sometimes lead to suicide.

Disillusioned with science’s ability to provide life’s meaning, Baroja found this possibility in the novel, a genre he viewed as open, encompassing everything, and allowing the novelist total freedom.

Narrative Work

Most of Baroja’s work is organized into trilogies. The main ones include:

  • Tierra vasca (Basque Land): Consists of La casa de Aizgorri (The House of Aizgorri), El mayorazgo de Labraz (The Lord of Labraz), and Zalacaín el aventurero (Zalacaín the Adventurer). This last novel is more cheerful and hopeful, offering a vision of the Carlist Wars through the eyes of a young, humble, brave protagonist.
  • La vida fantástica (The Fantastic Life): Includes the main work Camino de perfección (pasión mística) (The Road to Perfection), which focuses on the life and spiritual evolution of Fernando Ossorio, an uncertain and lonely character buffeted by life, whose apathy prevents him from rebelling.
  • La lucha por la vida (The Struggle for Life): Formed by La busca (The Quest), Mala hierba (Weeds), and Aurora roja (Red Dawn). La busca is a characteristic bildungsroman (novel of learning), in which the protagonist, Manuel Alcázar, discovers life through different experiences. It is set in late 19th-century Madrid.
  • La raza (The Race): Its chief work is El árbol de la ciencia (The Tree of Knowledge), an autobiographical novel that is also a novel of learning. It is considered one of his best creations and closely aligned with the concerns of the Generation of ’98. Its protagonist, Andrés Hurtado, is a young medical student with great intellectual curiosity who reflects on the meaning of human existence.
  • El mar (The Sea): Features Las inquietudes de Shanti Andía (The Restlessness of Shanti Andía).

Other significant works include the extensive series Memorias de un hombre de acción (Memoirs of a Man of Action).