Spain’s Late Middle Ages: Politics, Crisis, and Expansion

Posted on Dec 5, 2024 in Geography

Political Organization: Institutions

Contrary to the concept of the king as feudal lord, Castile embraced the doctrine of a sovereign king and his subjects. In late medieval Castile, monarchs consolidated power by setting taxes and establishing the Royal Chancery Court, a permanent tribunal with kingdom-wide jurisdiction.

At the state level, Castile and Leon merged definitively, and two new institutions emerged: 1. The Royal Council, created in 1385, composed of lawyers advising the king. At the local level, the monarch controlled municipalities and villages through representatives like mayors, elders, and magistrates.

The Crown of Aragon maintained a different political structure: a confederation of territories, each with its own laws and institutions. Key institutions included:

  • Viceroys, representing the king in territories where he was not present.
  • The Courts, acting as a counterbalance to royal authority and defending members’ interests. Separate courts existed in each realm.
  • Provincial Assemblies (e.g., Generalitat of Catalonia, Provincial Deputation of Aragon, and of Valencia), which eventually became permanent.
  • The Justice of Aragon, interpreting and defending Aragonese privileges.
  • The Councils, controlled by urban oligarchies and governed by a delegate, judges, and an assembly (e.g., Consell de Cent in Barcelona).

Demographic, Economic, and Political Crisis

The late Middle Ages witnessed a widespread crisis encompassing:

  1. Demographic Crisis: Famine, civil wars, feudal violence, and the Black Death (1348, spreading inland from the Balearic Islands and east coast) led to rural exodus and depopulation.

  2. Economic Crisis: Depopulation, low agricultural yields, difficulties importing wheat, and the decline of skilled labor compounded the crisis.

  3. Political Crisis (Civil Wars):
    a) Castilian Civil War (1366-1369) between Pedro I and Henry II, resulting in Pedro’s murder and the Trastámara dynasty replacing the House of Burgundy. Another Castilian civil war occurred between 1464 and 1474.
    b) Civil wars in Navarre (1451) and Catalonia (1462-1472). The Catalan conflict pitted the monarchy and urban oligarchy against artisans and the petty bourgeoisie (the Busca) versus the financial oligarchy and merchants (the Biga).

  4. Feudal Reaction and Social Tensions: Antiseigneurial peasant rebellions, including the remensa peasant revolt against feudal lords and the Irmandiño movement in Galicia.

Crown of Aragon’s Mediterranean Expansion

From the late 12th to mid-14th centuries, the Crown of Aragon pursued significant Mediterranean expansion. Comprising Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, and Mallorca, the Crown’s expansion began with the conquests of Valencia and the Balearic Islands by James I.

Despite opposition from France and the Papacy, Sicily (1282) was incorporated by Peter III, Sardinia (1324) by James II, and Naples (1443) by Alfonso V. Briefly, the Crown also held Athens (1379-1388) and Neopatria (1379-1391), conquered by almogávares.

Barcelona played a crucial role in the flourishing international trade. Exports included iron, grain, and textiles from Sardinia and Sicily, while imports included hides and skins from North Africa, and spices from Byzantium, Syria, and Egypt. The Ottoman advance and the fall of Constantinople in 1453 hastened the decline of Mediterranean trade, coinciding with the rise of Atlantic routes.

Atlantic Routes: Castile and Portugal, and the Canary Islands

Castilian Atlantic expansion began with control of the Strait of Gibraltar (1292-1462), a strategic area for controlling Muslim incursions and reinforcements to the Nasrid kingdom. The first phase of the Canary Islands conquest (1402-1474) saw Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, La Gomera, and El Hierro taken from the Guanche inhabitants, starting with Jean de Bethencourt’s expedition. From 1475-1496, Gran Canaria, La Palma, and Tenerife were conquered as royal lands.

Portugal began its South Atlantic expansion in the early 15th century, exploring the African coast for gold and seeking an Atlantic route to India. Key events included the conquest of Ceuta (1415), colonization of Madeira (1419-1439), and exploration of the Gulf of Guinea (1474).

The Canary Islands became a source of rivalry between Portugal and Castile, resolved by the Treaty of Alcáçovas-Toledo (1479) during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs.

Dynastic Union: Integration of Castile and Aragon

The marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, following the War of the Castilian Succession and the Treaty of Alcáçovas, united the two crowns in a dynastic union. Castile surpassed Aragon in size, population, and economic wealth, possessing a unified state and a monarchy not controlled by the Cortes. The Concord of Segovia (1475) established principles for joint rule, including government reforms, religious reform, the conquest of Granada, and expansion in the Mediterranean and Atlantic.

Conquest of Granada and Incorporation of Navarre

The Granada War brought the last Muslim kingdom in Iberia under Castilian control. The war, consisting of battles and sieges, unfolded in three phases: the conquest of Alhama (1481-1484), the capture of Málaga (1485-1487), and the surrender of Granada (1488-1492). The Kingdom of Navarre, separate from Castile and Aragon since the 13th century, remained a vassal of the French kings.

Integration of the Canary Islands and Relations with Portugal

Before Isabella’s accession, Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, La Gomera, and El Hierro had joined the Castilian crown. Under the Catholic Monarchs, the remaining islands (Gran Canaria, La Palma, and Tenerife) were conquered through capitulations with masters and clergy who oversaw the conquest and re-evangelization on behalf of the monarchy. These islands remained as Crown lands. The Treaty of Tordesillas was signed in 1494.

State Organization: Institutions of Government

The authoritarian monarchy was strengthened by restoring social peace and consolidating royal authority. Key instruments included the Holy Brotherhood (1476) with police, judicial, and tax collection powers; resolution of the Catalan conflict with the Sentence of Guadalupe (1486); control of military orders and local power in Castile; and the Inquisition (1478). The reorganized state featured specialized councils (Inquisition, Orders, Aragon, Brotherhood), less prominent Cortes, local magistrates, and two chanceries and audiences for judicial administration. Aragon’s privileges and charters were confirmed, and the position of viceroy established.

Italian Wars and American Policy

The Italian Wars occurred in two phases (1495-1496 and 1502-1503), primarily involving the French kings Charles VIII and Louis XII against Ferdinand the Catholic. The conflict, focused on the Kingdom of Naples, resulted in Ferdinand’s victory and the incorporation of territories like Cerdanya, Roussillon, and Naples into the Crown of Aragon. North African expansion was limited to coastal strongholds (Melilla, Oran, Bougie, Tripoli) with minimal impact on piracy.