Spain’s Liberal Revolution: War, Constitution, and Ferdinand VII

War and Revolution

During the Spanish War of Independence (1808-1813), a liberal revolution unfolded. The Central Board (1808-1810), the regencies (1810-1814), and the Courts of Cadiz implemented significant changes.

These changes included profound political reforms, such as the Constitution of 1812, which laid the foundation for Spanish constitutionalism. Other key reforms included the Freedom of the Press (1810), church and military reforms, the abolition of the seigneurial regime, and the promotion of free industry and commerce.

Despite the war’s devastation and societal fragmentation, powerful forces, as evidenced by the Manifesto of the Persians, sought to restore the old order. Upon Ferdinand VII’s return in 1814, Spain reverted to a stricter form of absolutism.

The Surrender at Bailén

The first Spanish victory against Napoleon’s forces occurred in Bailén (Jaén) on July 19, 1808. José Casado del Alisal’s painting, housed in the Museo del Prado (Madrid), depicts the French surrender to General Francisco Javier Castaños.

The Constitution of 1812

The Constitution of 1812, also known as “La Pepa,” was a compromise between liberal and absolutist ideals, favoring the former with its liberal organization of the state while recognizing the rights of the Roman Catholic religion.

• National Sovereignty: Established the principle of national sovereignty.
• Division of Powers: Created a limited monarchy with legislative power residing in the Cortes (with the King), executive power with the King, and judicial power with the courts.
• Religion: Did not recognize religious freedom.
• Unicameral Cortes: Granted broad powers to the unicameral Cortes, including lawmaking, deciding succession to the crown, and approving treaties.
• Fundamental Rights: Guaranteed fundamental rights such as equality before the law, inviolability of domicile, freedom of the press, and elementary education.

Foreign Policy and the War of Independence

Spain’s foreign policy involved alliances with either France or England, often resulting in defeat. The Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807) saw Godoy ally with Napoleon to invade and divide Portugal. However, Napoleon’s subsequent invasion of Spain led to the abdication of Charles IV and Ferdinand VII in Bayonne, placing Joseph I, Napoleon’s brother, on the Spanish throne.

The May 2nd uprising in Madrid against French troops marked the beginning of the War of Independence (1808-1813).

Joseph I’s Reign

Under Joseph I, Spain was divided. The French-controlled areas saw attempts to promote culture, implement reforms, and suppress the Inquisition. In uncontrolled areas, governing bodies formed, organizing armies and ultimately drafting the Constitution of 1812 in the Courts of Cadiz, based on national sovereignty, the division of powers, state religion, and individual rights.

In 1813, Spain, allied with England, defeated France at the Battle of Vitoria, forcing Joseph I to leave the country.

Ferdinand VII’s Return

Upon Ferdinand VII’s return, the population divided into two factions: absolutists (clergy, nobility, and army) who sought to restore the old regime, and liberals (bourgeoisie) who supported the Cortes of Cadiz.

Liberators of South America

Simón Bolívar (1783-1830): A hero of American independence, known as “The Liberator” for his dedication to emancipating American colonies. From a wealthy Creole family, Bolívar became involved in politics during his time in Europe (1799-1807) and actively participated in the independence movements from 1807 onwards.

José de San Martín (1778-1850): An Argentine military and political leader, known as “The Liberator” in Argentina and “The Protector” in Peru. From an aristocratic family, he served in the Spanish army for 22 years before returning to Argentina in 1812 to fight for independence, later becoming governor.