Spain’s Political & Social Turmoil: 1902-1923
Spain’s Political and Social Crisis (1902-1923)
The Seeds of Crisis (1902-1917)
The period from King Alfonso XIII’s ascent in 1902 to the Primo de Rivera dictatorship in 1923 was marked by persistent political instability. Several factors contributed to this crisis:
- Alfonso XIII’s political meddling: The king abandoned his role as a neutral arbitrator and sided with conservative military factions, ultimately supporting Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship. This eroded the monarchy’s prestige.
- Division within political parties: The disappearance of established leaders and internal conflicts weakened the traditional political system.
- Decline of traditional leadership: The country’s urban development further weakened the influence of traditional leaders.
- Growing political and social opposition: Republicans, nationalists, socialists, and anarchists challenged the Restoration regime.
From 1917 onwards, coalition governments and alliances were constantly shifting, with neither liberals nor conservatives securing stable majorities.
Amidst this political instability, Spain faced serious social problems:
- Intensifying social struggles: The divide between employers and workers widened.
- The “religious question”: Growing protests against the Church’s power, particularly in education, fueled anti-clericalism among urban and working classes.
- The “military issue”: Humiliated by the 1898 defeat, the army faced criticism from opposition groups, further straining civil-military relations.
- Rise of nationalist movements: Nationalist sentiments intensified in Catalonia and the Basque Country, with no avenue for negotiation with the ruling parties.
- The “problem of Morocco”: The 1906 Algeciras Conference divided Morocco between France and Spain. Spain’s control over the northern zone led to the unpopular Moroccan War (1909), exacerbating tensions between the army and the public.
The Catalan Crisis and the Law of Jurisdictions (1905-1907)
In 1905, a crisis erupted in Catalonia. The Regionalist League’s electoral victory alarmed the army, who saw it as a threat to national unity. Following anti-military satire in a Barcelona publication, officers raided and burned printing presses. The government responded by enacting the 1906 Law of Jurisdictions, placing criticism of the army under military jurisdiction.
Public backlash led to the formation of Catalan Solidarity, which won the 1907 elections, significantly reducing conservative and liberal representation in Catalonia.
Maura’s Reforms and the Tragic Week (1907-1909)
Conservative leader Antonio Maura came to power in 1907 with a reform agenda. He amended electoral laws, established the National Insurance Institute, and attempted to introduce limited autonomy for Catalonia. However, his reforms collapsed in 1909.
Barcelona, a center of industrialization, experienced growing worker protests, culminating in the creation of the anarchist Solidaridad Obrera in 1907. Alejandro Lerroux’s Radical Republican Party also gained traction with its anti-clerical platform. The Law of Jurisdictions further fueled anti-clericalism and anti-militarism.
The Moroccan War triggered the Tragic Week:
- Attacks on Spanish workers in the Rif led to reservist mobilization.
- Worker protests erupted in Barcelona and Madrid.
- The Barranco del Lobo disaster resulted in heavy Spanish casualties.
- A general strike in Barcelona led to three days of protests, convent burnings, and clashes with the army.
The Tragic Week resulted in hundreds of casualties and widespread destruction. The harsh repression included the unfair trial and execution of Francisco Ferrer y Guardia, founder of the Modern School.
Canalejas’ Reforms and the Crisis of 1917 (1910-1917)
While Pablo Iglesias’ election to parliament in 1910 marked a socialist advance, Liberal leader José Canalejas attempted further reforms within the Restoration system. His efforts were cut short by his assassination in 1912, marking the beginning of a permanent crisis.
World War I, although dividing public opinion, brought economic prosperity to neutral Spain.
However, unequal distribution of this prosperity and rising inflation led to the complex crisis of 1917:
- Military crisis: Discontent among peninsular officers over the promotion of “Africanist” officers led to the creation of military juntas.
- Parliamentary crisis: Deputies and senators formed a National Assembly demanding government change and a constituent assembly.
- Social crisis: The August 1917 general strike, organized by the CNT and UGT, resulted in numerous casualties and arrests.
The general strike had significant consequences. Fearing a worker revolution, the juntas backed down and supported the repression of strikers. Dato’s resignation and the formation of a coalition government deactivated the Parliamentary Assembly. The social class struggle intensified.
Social Conflict in Barcelona and the Rise of Violence (1919-1923)
The end of World War I brought economic and social hardship, triggering intense conflict in Barcelona (1919-1921). Anarchist-led strikes and protests were met with harsh repression by Maura’s government, supported by the Catalan bourgeoisie. Employers formed the Free Trade Union, a paramilitary group, to counter anarchist “direct action”. The “Law of Leaks” allowed for extrajudicial executions, escalating the conflict.
The assassination of Prime Minister Eduardo Dato in 1921 and anarchist leader Salvador Segui in 1923 marked the violent culmination of this period.