Spain’s Political Turmoil: Reign of Alfonso XIII (1900-1920s)
The Reign of Alfonso XIII (1900-1920s)
During the last quarter of the 19th century, Spain experienced a period of stability thanks to the Restoration. However, throughout the early 20th century, during the reign of Alfonso XIII, emerging forces struggled to find a place within the established Canovist party system.
Causes of the Restoration System Crisis
At the beginning of the 20th century, following the colonial disaster of 1898, a sense of regeneration and the need for reforms swept through the political and intellectual classes. One cause of this crisis was the disappearance of party leaders like Sagasta and Cánovas. Their parties fragmented due to the absence of strong leadership, and the pacts that characterized the early stages of the regime weakened, increasing political instability. The King assumed a greater role in politics, becoming the arbiter of the system. Electoral struggles intensified, with rural areas holding greater electoral weight while free voting increased in cities, empowering new political forces opposed to turnismo.
This political behavior coincided with significant economic development in the first two decades of the 20th century.
Catalonia: A Paradigm of the Political Crisis
Catalonia provided a clear example of the Canovist system’s crisis. Two parties emerged: the Regionalist League, representing Catalan interests and supported by the entrepreneurial bourgeoisie, and Lerroux’s republicanism, which, despite its anti-Catalan stance, aimed for marginalization. Following serious incidents involving the military’s interference with freedom of expression (the Cu-Cut Affair), the Catalan Solidarity movement formed, uniting multiple parties and achieving a landslide victory in the 1907 elections.
Maura’s Government and the Tragic Week
From 1907 to 1909, the Conservatives held power. They implemented a regenerator program known as the “revolution from above.” The Electoral Act was amended in 1907 without the desired effect, and an anti-caciquismo program was met with caution but not rejection. While it seemed the monarchy was achieving stability, the Tragic Week of 1909 led to Maura’s removal. This urban uprising, sparked by the call for reservists to defend positions in Morocco, resulted in the burning of convents and churches. The government’s harsh repression, including five death sentences (one of which was given to anarchist Francisco Ferrer Guardia with minimal legal guarantees), fueled discontent. Liberals, feeling the Conservatives had disregarded the turnismo pact, joined Republicans in demanding Maura’s dismissal, leading the King to withdraw his confidence.
The Liberals and the Government of Canalejas
Internal divisions plagued the Liberal ranks from the beginning of the century. The longest stage, from 1910 to 1912, was led by José Canalejas, who implemented a comprehensive program of fiscal, social, and labor reforms. A new law established the soldier quota, replacing the previous cash redemption system. His most controversial law, the “Law of the Padlock,” slowed the expansion of religious orders. His term ended tragically with his assassination by an anarchist in 1912, halting his renewal efforts.
New Forces Complicate the Political Landscape
From 1913 onward, the political landscape grew increasingly complex. Dynastic parties decomposed, splitting into autonomous political groups. Notable liberal groups were led by Romanones, Alba, and García Prieto. Conservative factions included supporters of Eduardo Dato, the Maurists (New Right), and Neo-Maurists (far-right), alongside the Carlist right. Nationalist forces also emerged, including the Catalan Lliga Regionalista and the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) led by Sabino Arana, with both radical and moderate independence wings.
Workers’ parties, including socialists and anarchists, and to some extent republicans, gained prominence. In 1910, Pablo Iglesias, a prominent Republican Socialist, secured a parliamentary seat. However, the socialist movement in Spain remained less influential than in other parts of Europe, with anarchism being more prevalent. The anarchist CNT, a major rival of the socialist UGT, was founded in 1910.
The Impact of World War I
Spain remained neutral during World War I, but public opinion divided into pro-German and pro-Allied camps. Spain’s neutrality allowed it to supply both sides, leading to rapid trade and industrial expansion, transforming its economic and social landscape. While a new wealthy class emerged, the working class faced declining living standards due to rising prices driven by exports. This situation worsened in 1916 when the UGT and CNT joined forces, threatening a general strike unless the government addressed their concerns.
The Crisis of 1917
High inflation rates affected the military, leading mid-ranking officers to form an assembly, challenging the government. This military and worker challenge was joined by the Catalan Lliga, which sought federalist political change. Dato yielded to the military’s demands, who did not participate in the general strike, which ultimately failed due to limited support and harsh repression. The King offered the Lliga positions within the ruling elite, granting them two ministerial portfolios.
The Moroccan Crisis and the Disaster of Annual
The Canovist system failed to meet the country’s needs. Between 1917 and 1923, numerous governments came and went, some lasting less than a month. All political forces suffered from internal weaknesses. Regionalism, particularly the Catalan question with its demands for autonomy, and labor unrest intensified. Between 1919 and 1921, continuous labor unrest and union struggles led to terrorist acts involving the CNT and the Free Trade Unions. These attacks claimed the lives of prominent political, union, and church figures. State repression and police terrorism escalated, with extrajudicial killings of detainees disguised as escape attempts.
The situation in Morocco also deteriorated. After the Franco-Spanish conquest of Morocco and the end of World War I, France sought further expansion. Spain, unwilling to be sidelined, occupied the Rif region under General Fernández Silvestre in 1922. However, the Spanish army suffered a devastating defeat at Annual against Abd el-Krim’s Rifian forces, exposing the army’s lack of preparedness, inefficiency, and corruption. The military, sensitive to criticism, adopted a hostile stance towards the system.
The last constitutional government in 1922, a liberal coalition, faced opposition from the military, church, and clerical sectors. The pressure from these powerful institutions hindered the weak government’s ability to implement necessary reforms to modernize the country.