Spain’s Regency Era (1833-1843): Liberalism and Carlist Wars
Spain’s Regency Era (1833-1843)
The Dawn of Liberalism and the Carlist Wars
The early years of liberal rule in Spain during Isabel II’s minority coincided with the First Carlist War (1833-1840). This conflict, rooted in succession disputes and ideological clashes, would erupt twice more during the 19th century.
The First Carlist War (1833-1840): Causes and Conflicts
Causes of the Conflict
- The Succession Question: The legitimacy of Isabel II’s claim to the throne and her mother Maria Cristina’s regency was challenged by the Carlists, who supported Carlos’s claim to the Spanish crown. This faction persisted even after Carlos’s death.
- Ideological Confrontation: The Carlists, staunch opponents of liberalism, represented the far right of the 19th century. Their motto, “God, Country, and King,” reflected their traditionalist values, support for the Ancien Régime, and belief in the divine right of monarchy. They also advocated for maintaining traditional regional privileges (fueros), which granted autonomy in governance, justice, and fiscal matters.
Support for Liberalism
Liberalism found support in major cities, among the bourgeoisie, workers, the ecclesiastical hierarchy, the nobility, and much of the army, all remaining loyal to Queen Isabel II. Internationally, Portugal and the United Kingdom signed the Quadruple Alliance, bolstering the Elizabethan regime.
Support for Carlism
Carlism drew support from peasants, the gentry, conservative sectors of the church (regular clergy) opposed to disentailment measures, artisan groups in the north fearing the demise of guilds, some army officers, and rural populations in certain regions.
Stages of the First Carlist War
- Formation of the Basque-Navarrese Insurrectionary Focus: Failing to incite a general uprising, the Carlists, led by Zumalacárregui, established a military presence in the Basque Country and Navarre. Zumalacárregui’s death was a significant blow to the Carlist forces.
- National Expeditions: This period saw Carlist forays beyond their Basque-Navarrese stronghold, including the Gómez and Real expeditions. The Carlists failed to capture Bilbao, while Espartero’s victory at Luchana elevated him to popular hero status.
- Elizabethan Initiative and the Convention of Vergara (1837-1839): The Convention of Vergara, symbolized by the embrace between Espartero and Maroto, effectively ended the war in Navarre and the Basque Country.
- The End of the War in Maestrazgo (1839-1840): General Cabrera and his troops, rejecting the Convention of Vergara, continued fighting until Espartero’s capture of Morella.
Subsequent Carlist Wars
The Second Carlist War (1846-1849)
Known as the “Matiners’ War,” this conflict primarily took place in Catalonia, followed by other Carlist uprisings. Carlism experienced a resurgence after Isabel II’s overthrow in the 1868 revolution.
The Third Carlist War (1872-1876)
Fought in Catalonia, Navarre, and the Basque Country, this war included the Basc forays of 1874. The Bourbon Restoration in 1875 marked the decline of Carlism.
Organization of the Liberal Regime (1833-1868)
During Isabel II’s reign, legislative measures aimed to solidify the liberal state in Spain. This period is divided into two stages: the minority (1833-1843) and the majority (1843-1868).
The Minority of Isabel II: The Regency (1833-1843)
The Transition (1835-1840)
This period was dominated by moderate absolutists and moderate liberals (Martínez de la Rosa) who sought to combine elements of the old regime with liberal principles. The Royal Statute of 1834, a charter outlining the convocation of the Cortes, served as the legal framework. The Cortes had consultative powers, comprising appointed national leaders and elected attorneys.
Reforms included the provincial territorial division (Javier de Burgos) and the revival of the national militia. Popular revolts in 1835, including the killing of monks and the burning of a textile factory in Barcelona, signaled the failure of this transitional regime.
The Progressive Rupture (1835-1840)
Progressive governments, led by figures like Juan Álvarez Mendizábal, sought to dismantle the Ancien Régime. Key developments included:
- Mendizábal’s leadership and subsequent departure from government triggered the military uprising of the sergeants of La Granja and a revolution.
- This uprising forced the Queen to establish the Constitution of 1837, a more moderate version of the Cádiz Constitution, attempting to reconcile various liberal factions. It recognized national sovereignty and maintained the separation of powers, with the Cortes (bicameral, with a Senate and House of Representatives) sharing sovereignty with the King.
- Disentailment measures were revived, notably Mendizábal’s disentailment of regular church property (1836-1837) and its subsequent auction. This aimed to finance the First Carlist War and garnered social and political support.
The Regency of Espartero (1840-1843)
Espartero, a popular hero after his military victories, replaced Maria Cristina as regent. He imposed an authoritarian liberalism backed by the army. His governments reinstated Mendizábal’s laws, including the confiscation of secular clergy assets (from 1841), sparking opposition from the Church and the papacy.
Espartero’s attempt to sign a free trade agreement with the United Kingdom alienated France and the Catalan textile industry, leading to an uprising in Barcelona in 1842. Espartero’s bombardment of the city eroded his popularity. Exiles began advocating for Isabel II’s reign.
The era of regencies marked the triumph of liberalism and the beginnings of a modern state in Spain, a process that continued during Isabel II’s majority (1844-1868).