Spain’s Restoration & 20th Century Turmoil: A Concise History
The Restoration (1875-1898)
In 1855, during the Progressive Biennium, the Central Board of Directors of the working class was created, leading to the success of the first general strike in Catalonia in July 1855. Workers demanded stable working hours, a joint board of owners and workers to discuss industrial disputes, and the limitation of dismissals. In 1864, the International Association of Workers (AIT) was founded in London, aiming for the economic and social emancipation of the working class and the overthrow of the liberal regime through collectivization of production and the creation of an egalitarian society. Discrepancies arose within the AIT, particularly between Marx and Bakunin, causing a split into Marxist and anarchist factions. The AIT influenced the Spanish labor movement, with Giuseppe Fanelli founding the first AIT centers in Spain in 1868. In 1870, the Spanish Workers’ Congress was held in Barcelona. When the AIT split, anarchism became predominant in Catalonia, Valencia, and Andalusia, while Marxism gained importance in Madrid, Bilbao, Asturias, and Santander.
UD 3: The Restoration. Home of the “Disaster” (1875-1898)
The Political Events
On December 29, 1874, General Martínez Campos led a coup in Sagunto and proclaimed Alfonso XII King of Spain. A provisional government led by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo was formed in Madrid. The new king’s first major action was ending the Third Carlist War, offering amnesty to those who joined the monarchy. Ramon Cabrera, a former Carlist fighter, accepted. However, not all Carlist officers agreed, and the war continued until 1876 when the Carlist pretender, Charles VII, went to France. Carlists didn’t take up arms again, but their traditionalist ideas persisted. Cánovas then designed a new political system. The Restoration was marked by the creation of two political parties: the Conservative Party, led by Cánovas, and the Liberal Party, led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta. The Conservative Party comprised members from the Moderate Party, the Liberal Union, and moderate sectors of the Progressive Party. It had the support of the wealthy classes (industrialists, landowners) and the Church. The Liberal Party included members from the Progressive Party, the Democratic Party, and moderate Republicans. It had the support of the middle classes, professionals, officials, and a sector of the army. The Restoration system was based on the peaceful alternation of these two dynastic parties in power, following the adoption of the 1876 Constitution. Bipartisanship was consolidated after King Alfonso XII’s death, with the Pact of El Pardo ensuring the peaceful rotation of power during the Queen’s regency. The new Spanish regime was recognized by European powers and the Vatican. Pacification of Cuba, which had begun a ten-year war of independence, was also undertaken, ending temporarily with Martínez Campos’s negotiation and the Peace of Zanjón.
The Political Framework
The Constitution of 1876 provided the theoretical framework. Cánovas prioritized practical success over ideological purity. His fundamental principles, or “internal constitution,” were the homeland, the monarchy, the historic dynasty, liberty, property, and cooperation between the king and parliament. All parties had to accept these principles. Other matters were open to discussion, although Cánovas was not in favor of Catalanist formulations. The Constitution established Spain as a monarchy with Alfonso XII as the legitimate king, declared Catholicism the state religion, and allowed public manifestation of Catholic ceremonies. It granted freedom of expression, association, and assembly, created a bicameral parliament (Chamber of Deputies and Senate), and gave legislative power to the king. The Constitution allowed the ruling party to make laws according to their ideology, respecting previous work done by the opposition. However, the Restoration’s political system was not truly democratic, as elections were not transparent. The electoral mechanism involved the Ministry of Interior ordering civil governors to ensure the desired party’s victory. Local chiefs pressured peasants and workers to vote accordingly, and votes were often added, misrepresented, or cast by the deceased.
The Economic Situation
Demography
The Spanish population grew at a lower rate than the rest of Europe. The birth rate began to fall, and while the mortality rate declined, it remained high due to the Third Carlist War, the Cuban War, cholera epidemics, and subsistence crises. Emigration to Argentina and Brazil increased, with Catalans particularly emigrating to Cuba. Population shifted from rural areas to cities, with the secondary and tertiary sectors growing.
Agriculture
New crops were introduced, such as those oriented towards export and sugar beet. However, most cultivated land was used for grains. In Catalonia, viticulture rose and declined due to the phylloxera plague.
Industry
The Basque Country and Catalonia remained the industrial centers, focusing on steel and textiles, respectively. In the Basque Country, the iron and steel industry and metallurgy were promoted, with the creation of Altos Hornos de Bilbao and La Iberia, which merged in 1902 to form Altos Hornos de Vizcaya. Accumulated capital in Bilbao allowed for the development of heavy industry near iron mines. In Catalonia, the textile sector, particularly cotton and wool, persisted. Catalan industry faced challenges due to a lack of energy sources and difficulty finding markets. The lack of renewable energy led to increased costs and reduced competitiveness, prompting Catalan industrialists to demand protectionist tariffs.
Evolution of the Labor Movement
The labor movement’s resurgence coincided with the Restoration and the split of the AIT. Initially, it operated underground due to general indifference towards social issues. Intellectuals criticized Spain’s social, economic, and cultural state, leading to the emergence of regenerationism, led by Joaquín Costa. The Spanish labor movement was divided between Marxism and anarchism. On May 2, 1879, the Socialist Party (PSOE) was founded, officially registered two years later. In 1888, during the Universal Exposition of Barcelona, the PSOE held its first congress and founded the General Union of Workers (UGT). Marxism spread slowly in Spain. Anarchism, with its ideas of freedom, was more successful among workers and peasants. Following the principles of direct action and propaganda of the deed, anarchists adopted terrorist tactics (anarcho-communism). This resulted in numerous attacks, including an assassination attempt against Martínez Campos, the Liceu bomb, the Corpus Christi procession bombing in Barcelona, and the assassination of Cánovas del Castillo by an Italian anarchist. Each attack led to police repression, with imprisonments and executions of anarchists.
The Cuban Disaster of 1898
The Cuban problem dated back to 1868, with frequent uprisings. By the late 19th century, the United States showed interest in Cuba and its sugar trade, supporting Cuban insurgents and initiating a smear campaign against Spain. Using the explosion and sinking of the Maine in Havana harbor as a pretext, the U.S. declared war on Spain. This war humiliated the Spanish army, which was outmatched in naval power and weaponry. Spain sued for peace, and the Treaty of Paris (1898) resulted in Spain losing Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and the Marianas.
UD 4: Disaster of the Second Republic
The Impact of Disaster
Despite the Restoration’s political system remaining unchanged, the Spanish-American War had negative consequences for Spain, leading to a crisis of state power, internal divisions within dynastic parties, and general political instability. Opposition grew, with the labor movement becoming more organized and regenerationism emerging as an alternative, advocating for the moralization of public administration, state reform, wealth promotion, public education, and moving beyond past “glories.” Joaquín Costa, its main representative, advocated for a “revolution from above.” Regenerationism was ambiguous, combining critiques of Spain’s problems with sometimes unclear democratic proposals. After the failure of top-down change, regenerationism embraced authoritarian solutions.
The Political Crisis of the Restoration (1902-1923)
At the beginning of the twentieth century, Spain had four major problems: An economic backwardness and culture with the rest of Europe, which favored the existence of a proletariat and poor peasantry increasingly numerous and reivindicatiu.Un genes democratic political regime, corrupt and artificial (Restoration) where the people there were very representatUn army criticized and his pride wounded by defeat in Cuba, with antiquated equipment and an excess of officers. Some peripheral nationalisms increasingly evident that certain areas endangered by the concept of unity in Pàtria.Tenint account these factors, it is not surprising that the system of the Restoration came soon decline. In addition, its creator, Canovas del Castillo, was killed in an attack anarchist, and a few years later, the leader of the Liberal Party Práxedes Mateo Sagasta also died. Politicians who succeeded the two aforementioned never came close to its height and this is also a factor to stick into account when explaining the collapse Restauració.Aquest progressive collapse was due to successive crises that weakened until the Primo de Rivera was a coup, and with the approval of King Alfonso XIII, was deployed regime. civilisme crisis (1902-1907) In 1905, satirical weekly Catalan Cu-cut! He published a joke that ridiculed the Spanish army. About 300 officers stormed the garrison of Barcelona and burn their headquarters and also the newspaper Voice of Catalonia near the Regionalist League The authors were not only not punished but received the support of the garrisons of the other Spain. This led to the army asked the government to a liberal Moret law jurisdictions, whereby crimes against the army and the country would be tried by military tribunals. The government was accedir.Com In response, all political forces were united in a Catalan nationalist coalition led by the League, called the Catalan Solidarity. This coalition had a successful election in 1907 (41 seats in the Spanish parliament). The main point of his program was the abolition of the law jurisdictions. The crisis of the Pact of Pardo (1907-1912) One of the most brilliant politicians of the era was Antonio Maura, who tried to carry out a political regeneration. Worth noting the law of nature decentralization of local government that received improvements and contribution Francesc Cambo, politician and member of the Regionalist League parliament Maura espanyol.La work was interrupted by the events of the Tragic Week in July 1909. Spain was at war with Morocco and because of successive defeats and heavy casualties, had to recruit reservists (men who had done military service above).The day had come out from the port of Barcelona to Morocco broke a popular uprising that spread to Barcelona and even other Catalan towns like Sabadell, press or Granollers.El government had to send the army to quell the uprising and repression was extremely harsh, with more than 2500 detainees, 59 and 17 sentences to life imprisonment the death sentences to go run 5 Among those executed was Francisco Ferrer y Guardia, which was regarded as the inductor of the revolt. Had founded the Modern School of secular nature, and was belonged to the masonry. He was convicted and executed without due proves.Com facts, Catalan Solidarity broke due to the support they had given the league the repression ordered by the Conservative government Maura. Moreover, there was a general outcry in Spain and Europe, also for the repressive policy undertaken by Maura (Maura campaign not!). In addition, the Liberals demanded the resignation of Maura, which was achieved when Alfonso XIII ceased Moret was appointed president and head of government. The attitude of the liberals caused the rupture of the pact of El Pardo, which reached in 1885 and established a solidarity between the two parties dinàstics.Després minimum of Moret, King instructed the government to form liberal José Canalejas . Canalejas undertook some important reforms: He approved a draft set of arbitration Mancomunitats.Va state conflicts socials.Va suppress the release of cash allocation of the agreed service militarVa zones influence in Morocco with França.Malauradament Jose Canalejas was unable to continue his work because he was the victim of an anarchist attack when walking to Puerta del Sol in Madrid. The crisis of 1917 to multiple death Canalejas, there was no prominent politician who was able to pull the country out of its decline. The political system of the Restoration suffered its biggest shock in 1917 when there were three crises: military, political and social. Military crisis. Within the army there was discontent evident in certain sectors due to system of promotion. At that moment you ascend to the merits of war and this was only the military who were in Morocco could climb the ladder while they were in the garrisons of the peninsula could not do it (remember that the rise is not only meant more prestige but better wages). In addition, the military complained of instability of the material of the army and mismanagement by politicians. Boards were created Defense demanding a criterion for promotion based on seniority. Political crisis. The government responded to the crisis by closing the military courts, which created a political crisis. Due to the closure, the Regionalist League promoted a parliamentary meeting in Barcelona with the aim of creating the foundations for a new political system. On July 19, 1917, 69 members of the Spanish Parliament met to ask for a Constituent Assembly, to reorganize the state and meet the demands for independence. After this meeting, law enforcement suspended the Parliamentary Assembly and arrested participants. Social crisis. In August 1817 a general strike was called by the UGT union, with the support of the CNT (anarchist union) and the PSOE. The bad direction, the worst preparation heterogeneity of summoning the army facilitated the choke.Decomposition SYSTEM (1818 – 1923) Starting in 1918, the political system of the Restoration came as a dynamic of crisis definitiva.Després the crisis of 1917 was the formation of various governments try to concentrate with presence of leaders from almost all parties (except the left and the Republicans). The government failed to redress the situation and broke-up shortly se.D Moreover, the Spanish governments were faced with an increase in social unrest due to poor living conditions and work of the working classes, and the influence of the Russian Revolution that took place in 18917. Increased strikes and social conflicts, emphasizing the general strike in 1919 and direct armed confrontation between some sectors workers gathered at the Union Single and groups of gunmen at the service of employers’ associations, called the Free Trade Union . In 1821, the situation became even more complicated due to the disaster of Annual, Morocco. Spanish troops there were a great blow by rifenys separatists led by Abd el-Krim. The Spanish army had over 12,000 casualties and initiated proceedings to establish liability. The Picasso case involved senior military and also splash
Alfonso himself
Faced with this crisis military, political and social leaders of the Restoration had no capacity to react. Between 1918 and 1923 in Spain there were ten different governments, none of which lasted over a year.
All this meant that, once again, the army decided to become the arbiter of policy and Spanish General Miguel Primo de Rivera staged an uprising in Barcelona, declared a state of war and abolished the Constitution of 1876. The King is not opposed and CVA appointed Prime Minister to General Primo de Rivera dictatorship that started so that lasted seven years.
The dictatorship of Primo de Rivera
The coup of Primo de Rivera had a good reception in general. Especially among the sectors of rural Spain, controlled by warlords with the landowners and members of the industrial and financial bourgeoisie, including the Catalan bourgeoisie.
There was also opposition groups and intellectuals (include Unamuno), peripheral nationalism and the workers, despite an initial approach to the dictatorship, then they oppose it (especially the CNT, which was harshly persecuted by the dictatorship)
Dictatorship is divided into two clearly differentiated periods: the Civil Military Directory and the Directory.
- Military Directory (1923-1925). So called because the government ministers were solely military. We try to create political organization IUNA State based on the existence of two parties, one right and one left. The Patriotic Union party was right, created by Primo de Rivera formed by landowners and industrialists Catalans. The match had to be left PSOE but finally refused to enter the political game. The most important action of this period was solving the problem of Morocco. In 1925, Spain managed to overcome the forces of Abd el-Krim after landing in Alhucemas. Also worth mentioning the reduction of social unrest due to government repression and the improvement of the Spanish economy.
- Civil Directory (1925-1930). The dictatorship he wanted to institutionalize and he created the National Assembly Advisory that was a sort of parliament elected democratically and not made up of representatives of the agrarian oligarchy. Were also carried out several projects to create infrastructure (roads, dams, canals). This reduced unemployment and was financed with private loans since the state did not have sufficient economic resources. State monopolies were created as Repsol, Campsa, Telefonica and Tabacalera. We should also note the Barcelona International Exhibition in 1929 which allowed certain urbanized areas of Barcelona (Plaza España, Montjuic) and gave him great prestige.
As time passed, opposition to the dictatorship was increasing and becoming more moves were opposed. In 1926 there was a conspiracy led by General Weyler and Batet was suffocated. In addition, the economic crisis of 1929 caused a decline resume devaluation of the peseta and a progressive deficit of trade balance. The opposition was growing increasingly, even in our own military. Aware of all this, Primo de Rivera decided to resign in December 1030 and was exiled in Paris
UD 5: ECONOMY AND SOCIETY 1898-1931)
Demographic Change
We must distinguish the demographics of the Spanish Catalan:
- In Spain there was an increased population, due mainly to the reduction of mortality and the maintenance of a high birthrate. Life expectancy rose from 34.8 years of the century to 50 years in 1930. This is explained by the disappearance of epidemics and to improve living conditions in general (better food, more hygienic, better health, etc.). Also noteworthy in the center of the migratory flow periphery, city and country from south to north.
- In Catalonia, the birth rate and mortality were also reduced and the population increased dramatically due to the arrival of immigrants from the first decade of the twentieth century. We should also note the increasing population of the city in these first thirty years of the century its population doubled and reached a million.
The migration routes remained constant. The areas that received more immigrants were Catalonia, Madrid, Bilbao and Seville. The main places from which people migrated were Galicia, Andalusia, Extremadura, Murcia New as well as Spanish.
The population distribution by industry evolved so that the primary sector reduced its number of troops (66.34% -45.51%), while the secondary sector (15.99% -26.51% ) and tertiary (17.77% -27.98%) increased. In Catalonia, the reduction in the primary sector was most important in Spain (52.88% -26.63%), the secondary sector grew (27.28% -50.76%) and the tertiary sector also increased ( 19.84% -22.09%).
The field and its problems
Spain, however, remained a predominantly agricultural country. During this period the Spanish camp continued its long process of change from subsistence agriculture to market agriculture. It reduced the fallow, increased irrigation, chemical fertilizers were introduced and diversified production (citrus, almonds, potatoes, sugar beets, etc.).
The ownership structure was divided into three types: large estates, and small farm AVERAGE LENGTH. The estates was typical of western Andalusia, Extremadura and parts of Castella and La Mancha. The smallholdings predominated in Galicia and the properties were mean to the rest of the country.
The social structure of the Spanish field was complex. In principle it was necessary first to establish a difference between owners (small or large) and not owners. Among the latter, it was noted the tenants, the tenants and laborers. The latter were the most numerous and their living conditions were precarious. They had temporary jobs is’anaven shifting depending on the job. They were a group potentially revolutionary precisely because these poor conditions.
In Catalonia predominated contracts emfiteusi Rabassa and dead. The contract emfiteusi had a long tradition and involved the transfer of lands in perpetuity in exchange for paying a fixed amount. The farmer could leave an inheritance the land or sell it if wanted. Rabassa’s death was typical of the vine growers and lasted until two thirds of ls strains died (40 years). The rabassaires but a ploy used (and thoughtful buried vines) that ensured the dominance of the land in perpetuity.
During this period, tensions in the Spanish countryside were very common, especially in Andalusia. The existence of large estates and the concentration of a large number of laborers led to conflicts. The peasants demanded land reform and a fairer distribution of land. Also criticized the willingness of landowners null fer4 reforms to their land. Farmers often demanding wage increases and made strikes, burned barns and demonstrating violently. The government responded to the intervention of the police who forcefully suppressed by any riot. The period of greatest conflict was bought between 1917 and 1920 due to the influence of the Soviet Revolution.
In Catalonia, there were conflicts in the countryside, especially among rabassaires and landowners. The problem arose when, due to the plague of phylloxera, which killed all strains, the owners felt that the contract had expired and wanted dead Rabassa negotiate others. Farmers were organized in the so-called Union and declared Rabassaires vineyards strike those owners who did not want to negotiate. Between 1917 and 1922, the Catalan countryside underwent a phase of violence. In 1922 he founded the Union of Rabassaires and Other Field Cultivators of Catalonia, which became the majority union of the Catalan countryside.
The evolution of the industry
During the first third of the twentieth century Spanish industry has experienced three major changes: the replacement of steam by electricity as a form of energy, concentration of heavy industry in the Basque Country and sector diversification.
However, there were some drawbacks: the difficulty of competing in foreign markets with foreign products and the weakness of the Spanish market, subject to the availability of purchasing agricultural classes.
The fact that most influenced during this period was World War I, which led to an increase in demand for all kinds of products by countries contenders. As the production did not increase, this meant that most of Spanish products are for export and therefore the amount of product destined for the domestic market fell which caused a considerable increase in prices. Although wages rose, the rise in prices was always higher, causing a deterioration of living conditions of the lower classes. Instead, employers were able to enrich and traders during this period. This was one of the causes of discontent of the working classes, who soon began protest movements. This situation is the cause of revolutionary strike in 1917. When World War I ended, the foreign demand fell sharply, causing a major crisis with a significant increase in unemployment between 1919 and 1923.
In Catalonia, there was a slowdown in industrial growth. The dependence on foreign coal was overcome when he began to use electricity as an energy source. One of the features of the Catalan industry first third of the twentieth century was its diversification. We encourage the chemical industry (Sociedad Anónima Cros), the metal (the Land and Maritime Machinist) il’automobilística (Hispano Suiza). Earnings of the World War were invested in growth industries but once the Catalan industry went into crisis and this led to a return to dependence on the market and the return to protectionism.
The evolution of the labor movement
The living conditions of the working class (increasingly numerous) were very poor in the first third of the twentieth century. The houses were small, unhealthy and often were shared between two or more families. The price of the house was almost impossible that a worker could face a car that escaped from its possibilities.
The working conditions were better: more than 10 hours days (Sundays included), poor hygienic and environmental conditions in factories, lack of social legislation that could cover illness, unemployment, retirement, accident … and very low wages that did not allow adequate food needs, especially children.
In addition, the working class could not leave because his condition was very difficult access to education. Thus, in Barcelona in 1902 there were only 94 schools and most of them were private religious and, therefore, impossible to access for children from lower class. This meant high rates of illiteracy and a certain resentment toward the Church, which was responsible for the misfortunes of the workers and the workers who preached under the present situation and hope of heaven after death.
As for the labor movement, we must say that in the first thirty years of the twentieth century continued division between socialism and anarchism, as represented by the UGT and CNT respectively.
Besides the unions, the Socialist Party continued to grow slowly and in 1910 had its first representative in the Spanish Parliament (Pablo Iglesias). In 1921 came the PCE (Communist Party of Spain) who joined the Third International or Comintern, which did the PSOE. That’s why there was division between communism (PCE) and socialist (PSOE).
Anarchists for their part also remained active. In Catalonia the idea to revive the former Federation of Workers of the Spanish Region. In 1900 was founded in Madrid the Federation of Workers’ Societies of the Spanish Region. In 1904 in Barcelona was founded Solidarity Workers. This movement of the proletariat was the Catalan town which arose in 1911 the National Confederation of Labour (CNT) influenced by anarcho-syndicalism. In 1927 he secretly established in Valencia, the Iberian Anarchist Federation (FAI), the purpose of promoting pure anarchism within the CNT and ensure the politicism association.
The social dynamics of the labor movement (1898-1931)
The period is characterized by a constant social tension and because of frequent strikes and demonstrations through which workers denounced their poor living conditions and work and receiving little support from the government of the Restoration ..
Strikes and demonstrations were often violent and riots were common on the streets and clashes with law enforcement, which sometimes looked overwhelmed and needed the intervention of the army and the declaration of a state of war . The repression was always strong and always there were detainees who were tried and convicted because there was no right to strike.
The labor movement in Catalonia can be divided into two phases:
- Before 1917, the priorities of the labor movement focused primarily on obtaining employment claims such as increased pay, reduced working hours, the right to strike, tec.
- Since 1917, the Soviet Revolution was predominant ideological references aimed at overturning the existing social order.
In this second stage include the enormous social unrest that took place in Barcelona between 1921 and 1923. Once World War I, there was an economic crisis that affected the working class, and in 1919 he held the Canadian strike (Barcelona Traction, Light and Powe r), which spread to other factories and lasted three months. Finally, we got the 3000 release of prisoners, the reinstatement of dismissed and an increase in salary.
This decision was not welcomed by employers who responded with the creation of paramilitary groups themselves, lockouts factories and the creation of Free Trade Unions in November 1919. The reaction of the workers was not expected and more radical groups of the CNT responded with armed action. All this represented the beginning of a period (of the gunmen) with many deaths and injuries among workers, employers, members of the public forces of Order, union leaders, etc..
Between 1920 and 1922, in Barcelona there was much social unrest. During this period, was civil governor of the province General Martinez Anido, which allowed the application of the Law of leakage, which allowed fire on detainees who tried to flee.
Among those there were killings, there was a death Layret Francis, lawyer and deputy Republican who defended the interests of the workers arrested and Salvador Segui, the Boy Sugar, CNT leader, assassinated in 1923.
Womanhood
During the early twentieth century, the woman was still considered inferior to man by nature.
Later, the idea was more successful the woman was a different being, characterized by feeling and affection, while the man was characterized by reason and conscience. According to this view, women should focus their education to make wife and mother, and therefore, access to education under equal conditions it was impossible. Boys and girls were separated at school and their educational models were different. The girls spent more time in religion and needlework. Access to higher education and the university was also almost impossible.
Working women was frowned upon, but it was often women from poor families had to work to have the most important income to his family. Generally, working in factories, but also in domestic service, and trade field. The woman was at a disadvantage with respect to man as it worked the same number of hours but earning less, did the same jobs as men and when he came home to face the job of the home. All this meant that women increasingly participate m, is in the union movement and noteworthy presence in the Union of Needle Barcelona.
The woman was also discriminated against the law. Catalan civil law saying that women should obey the husband. In the Spanish civil code that the man was named administrator of the assets of his wife and this could not buy or sell anything without permission from the husband. Adultery was also treated differently depending on who committed. In addition, women could not vote (it did for the first time in 1933)
This situation began to change when the woman was accessed, although a minority in public areas. It should be noted writer Dolores Monserdà, the anarcho-syndicalist leader Teresa Claramunt and driving the anarchist Revista Blanca Teresa Manea. It is also important the work of the writer known as Catherine Albert Victor Catalan and educator Rosa Sensat.