Spain’s Restoration: A Political Analysis of Alfonso XII’s Manifesto
Context
The Elizabethan Period and the Revolution of 1868
The Elizabethan period saw the dominance of the moderate party, which favored restrictive liberal rights and freedoms and the idea of shared sovereignty between the King and the Cortes. This led to the political dominance of landowners and conservatives, beneficiaries of confiscations, and blocked access to power for opposition parties (liberals, democrats), leaving them with the options of revolution or exile.
This situation ended in 1868. The objective of the “six-year revolutionary” men was clear: establish democracy.
The Provisional Government and Amadeo I
The Provisional Government, led by Serrano and Prim, established a democratic system with the 1869 Constitution. It addressed popular demands (abolishing the fifth and consumption tax), but couldn’t fulfill all of them. The Constitution defined a democratic monarchy, and Amadeo I of Savoy, son of Victor Emmanuel II, was chosen as king.
Amadeo I failed to consolidate the monarchy. He was isolated after Prim’s assassination, rejected by aristocrats, the bourgeoisie, and the Catholic clergy, and faced with little political support due to the division of the progressive party. Republicans protested in the streets, Carlists launched the Third Carlist War, and the Cuban War continued. Amadeo I abdicated in February 1873.
The First Republic
The First Republic, proclaimed immediately after Amadeo I’s abdication, faced intensified problems. It lacked international recognition (except from Switzerland and the USA), Republicans were divided into unitary and federal factions, social unrest persisted, the Cuban and Carlist Wars continued, and cantonalism emerged, aiming to establish independent cantons within Spain.
General Pavia’s intervention in Congress ended the chaotic situation in January 1874.
Nominally, the Republic, which saw four presidents (Figueras, Pi i Margall, Salmerón, and Castelar), continued under General Serrano’s military dictatorship.
The Restoration
Social conflict, disorder, and the dictatorial nature of the regime led the conservative and oligarchic classes to seek the restoration of the monarchy. The question was which model: authoritarian like Elizabeth II’s or a modern, constitutional one?
Cánovas convinced the oligarchy that the Elizabethan monarchy wouldn’t work. He needed a solution that guaranteed their dominance while avoiding past issues: pronouncements, uprisings, and marginalization of opposition groups.
Cánovas advocated for Alfonso XII and a peaceful return through parliamentary petition. General Martínez Campos’s pronouncement in Sagunto on December 29, 1874, proclaimed Alfonso XII king. He landed in Barcelona on January 9, 1875, beginning the Restoration.
International Context
The international context favored the Restoration. Europe had suppressed worker movements, the International Workingmen’s Association was dissolved, and the continent was more conservative. Economic times were stable, and trade and investment flourished. European countries and the Holy See quickly recognized the new regime.
Commentary
Key Points and the Manifesto’s Political Project
- Alfonso as the sole candidate: Queen Elizabeth II, deposed in 1868, abdicated in favor of her son, Alfonso, in 1870. She instructed Cánovas to pave the way for a Bourbon restoration.
- “Orphan nation deprived of rights and freedoms”: Refers to the nominally Republican Spain led by General Serrano after Pavia’s coup, which ended the Federal Republic. Serrano suspended constitutional rights and established a military dictatorship.
- “Free institutions of 1812 prevented defense of independence”: Refers to the Regency and Cortes that led the fight against Napoleon and temporarily ended absolutism, a victory finalized in 1840 after the Carlist War.
Alfonso XII advocated for a hereditary constitutional monarchy with a flexible constitution to address the country’s problems.
Cánovas believed the monarchy should be the undisputed form of state. He introduced the concept of an “internal constitution,” arguing that the Cortes (representing the nation) and the monarchy (divinely appointed) existed before written constitutions. They held sovereignty and were above the Constitution.
This concept of shared sovereignty undermined the democratic gains of 1869. To legitimize the new monarchy, Cánovas accepted universal suffrage for the elections to the Constituent Cortes, although the government controlled the outcome.
The 1876 Constitution and the Turno System
The 1876 Constitution sought a compromise between the 1845 and 1869 Constitutions, accommodating the main political tendencies. It incorporated shared sovereignty and monarchical dominance from 1845, and a similar Bill of Rights structure as 1869, but its implementation was left to future governments.
The religious issue was a compromise between those defending a confessional state and religious freedom.
The turno system allowed only parties accepting the monarchy to participate in politics. The Conservative Party and the Liberal Party alternated in power, ensuring peaceful transitions and stability. The army’s role was to defend the country and the law, not intervene in politics.
Consolidation and International Aspirations
The Canovist system consolidated the Restoration and liberal-capitalist society. Cánovas overcame challenges: Republican opposition, cantonalism, and the Carlist War. Peace in Cuba followed with the Peace of Zanjón in 1878.
The Manifesto also addressed Spain’s international aspirations. Cánovas aimed for Spain to occupy a prominent place among the great powers, who were consolidating their colonial empires. The appeal to liberalism and Catholicism was important, especially given Carlist support among the clergy.
Terms
- Constitutional monarchy:
- A system of government headed by a king subject to a constitution.
- Liberal:
- Relating to liberalism, a doctrine advocating natural law, individual rights, limited state intervention, and popular sovereignty.
- Cortes:
- The legislative authority and representative of the nation, with medieval origins in Spain.