Spain’s Restoration: Bourbon Dynasty and Canovas System
The Restoration in Spain: Return of the Bourbons
Following a brief and contradictory democratic period, the Restoration brought the Bourbons back to power, ushering in an era of conservatism under the political control of the oligarchy. This period allowed for the reconstruction of the Spanish political system, with a focus on stability and longevity. Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, leader of the Conservative Party during the Sexenio Alfonsino, became the architect of this new system, often referred to as the Cánovas System. The Restoration not only reinstated the Bourbon dynasty but also made it the cornerstone of the system.
Consolidating the Monarchy and the Cánovas System
To strengthen the monarchy and build a new political system around it, Cánovas implemented several measures. Sovereignty resided jointly in Parliament and the King. To gain support, he restored the Concordat of 1851 with the Church and reinstated military leaders purged during the revolutionary period. However, Cánovas’s policies restricted freedoms and social reforms, marking the early stages of the Restoration with conservatism. He appointed loyal mayors and governors and enacted repressive measures against opposition, even while attempting to win over some Democrats and progressive leaders. Opposition parties were banned, and their newspapers closed. The end of the Third Carlist War further aided the regime’s stability, although resistance continued until the signing of the Peace of Zanjón in 1878.
The Constitution of 1876 and the Two-Party System
A Constituent Cortes was convened to draft a constitution that would lay the foundation for the Restoration’s political system. Elections held in December 1875, under universal male suffrage as per the 1869 Constitution, were manipulated by Cánovas’s Conservative Party, resulting in a large majority due to high abstention rates and electoral manipulation. This allowed Cánovas to establish a conservative political system within a nominally liberal parliamentary framework.
The new constitution, inspired by the moderate 1845 Constitution, was flexible and eclectic, defending traditional and conservative values. It remained in effect until 1931. The 1876 Constitution established a monarchy with broad executive powers, shared sovereignty between the King and the Cortes, a clear division of powers, and a bicameral Cortes. The Senate comprised indirectly elected members (chosen by the largest contributors), hereditary members, and royal appointees. Private practice of other religions was permitted.
The Restoration’s political system rested on two main dynastic parties: the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party. Both defended the Bourbon monarchy, the Constitution, private property, and a centralized state. They accepted the alternation of power to ensure the monarchy’s stability and social peace. These parties primarily consisted of landowners and the bourgeoisie, with professionals more present among the Liberals. The Conservative Party, led by Cánovas, represented the traditional and conservative elements of society, while the Liberal-Fusion Party, later the Liberal Party, founded in 1880 and led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, advocated for universal male suffrage, freedom of religion, and freedom of the press.
The Turno System and Electoral Manipulation
In practice, the two parties differed little, operating under a tacit agreement not to enact laws the other party would repeal upon assuming power. This regular alternation in power, known as the Turno system, ensured institutional stability but relied on a corrupt and undemocratic electoral system. To ensure this peaceful alternation, Cánovas devised an electoral process that subverted parliamentary principles. The party in power would manipulate elections to win. The Minister of the Interior drew up lists of candidates, ensuring the opposition party received significant representation. Elections were rigged, with a series of electoral manipulations known as caciquismo, relying on local political bosses (caciques) who controlled constituencies through their economic and political influence. Despite this chicanery, the chosen candidate of the outgoing government would typically win.