Spain’s Restoration Era (1875-1931): Alfonso XII & the Cánovas System
The Reign of Alfonso XII and the Restoration in Spain (1875-1931)
The Restoration period in Spain spans from 1875, following the Glorious Revolution and the Democratic Sexenio, to 1931, with the proclamation of the Second Republic. It can be divided into two phases separated by the year 1898, marked by the loss of the last overseas colonies. The first phase corresponds to the reign of Alfonso XII and the regency of Maria Cristina of Habsburg. From 1902 onwards, a deep crisis emerged, coinciding with the reign of Alfonso XIII.
Key Characteristics of the Restoration:
- Stability brought about by the 1876 Constitution.
- Removal of the military from direct political involvement.
- Alternation of power between two main political parties, although this was often characterized by caciquismo (political bossism) and electoral manipulation.
The First Republic ended with the coup of General Pavia, who dissolved parliament in 1874 and established the dictatorship of Serrano. Prince Alfonso signed the Manifesto of Sandhurst, outlining his vision for a restored monarchy. Cánovas del Castillo, a key figure in the Restoration, also advocated for a peaceful return to monarchical rule. However, in 1874, Martínez Campos led a revolt in Sagunto and proclaimed Alfonso XII as King. A provisional government, led by Cánovas, was formed, and Alfonso returned to Spain shortly after, marking the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty.
Factors Contributing to Alfonso XII’s Success:
- Significant popular support.
- The conclusion of the Third Carlist War and the Ten Years’ War in Cuba.
The Cánovas System: The Constitution of 1876 and the Turno Pacífico
Cánovas del Castillo aimed to restore the prestige of the monarchy, which had suffered during the reign of Isabella II. He envisioned a system where the Crown shared sovereignty with the Cortes (parliament) and played an active role in politics. The Constitution was designed to accommodate various liberal tendencies, creating a framework that could encompass moderate unionists, progressives, and even some Democrats, provided they accepted the monarchy and the principle of peaceful alternation in government (turno pacífico).
Cánovas sought to establish a lasting constitutional order, allowing different parties to govern and ending the cycle of military coups. The army was expected to return to its barracks and fulfill its constitutional role. His political model was based on two major parties alternating in power, accepting their role in opposition when not in government and respecting the legislative work of their predecessors. The Restoration was fundamentally conservative, both politically and socioeconomically. It also aimed to appease the middle classes, who were wary of the social movements that had emerged during the previous period.
In preparation for the new constitution, elections were held for a Constituent Cortes based on male suffrage. However, the electoral process was manipulated to ensure a large majority for government candidates. The resulting Constitution of 1876, inspired by the moderate Constitution of 1845, established a constitutional monarchy based on:
- Shared sovereignty between the Cortes and the King.
- An executive branch where the King appointed the government and held supreme command of the army.
- A bicameral legislature partially subject to the King’s authority (he could dissolve parliament, propose and veto legislation, appoint senators, etc.).
- A Bill of Rights based on the 1869 Constitution.
- A centralized state with limited autonomy for municipalities and provincial governments.
- Catholicism as the official state religion, with tolerance for other faiths as long as they conformed to Catholic morality (public displays of non-Catholic faiths were prohibited).
Suffrage was determined by census, effectively limiting it to male property owners. Political parties were essentially parties of notables, lacking formal structures or membership, with loyalty based on personal connections. This facilitated fluidity between parties and made internal unity precarious.
The Two Main Parties:
Conservative Party: Led by Cánovas del Castillo, it comprised moderate unionists and some progressive elements. Its origins lay in the alfonsinos who had supported Isabella II. Its social base included landowners, business elites, and the clergy.
Liberal Party: Led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, it integrated progressives, radical Democrats, and even some moderate Republicans. It drew support from professionals, merchants, soldiers, and civil servants. While defending the bourgeois order, it did not entirely reject the idea of universal male suffrage.
The Restoration solidified the power of the oligarchy, composed of large landowners, industrialists, and financiers. The alliance between the nobility, the landed gentry, and the clergy, characteristic of the Isabelline era, persisted. The army remained largely outside the political arena until the system entered its crisis phase in the early 20th century.