Spain’s Restoration Era: Alfonso XII and the Canovist System (1874-1902)
) Reign of Alfonso XII: Canovist System and the 1876 Constitution
The Restoration of the Bourbon Monarchy (1874)
The instability of the period (1868-74) led the bourgeoisie to adopt conservative positions. The failure of the First Republic fueled the desire for a restoration. Supporters of the Bourbon restoration actively sought international support for Alfonso XII, son of Isabella II. Cánovas del Castillo, a key figure in this process, aimed to portray the restoration as the will of the Spanish people, not a military coup. Alfonso signed the Sandhurst Manifesto, outlining his conciliatory intentions. However, against Cánovas’s advice, General Arsenio Martínez Campos proclaimed Alfonso XII king in Sagunto on December 29, 1874, effectively restoring the monarchy through a military coup.
The Canovist System and Its Two-Party Structure
Alfonso XII’s arrival in January 1875 marked the beginning of the Restoration, a period lasting until 1902 when his son, Alfonso XIII, came of age. The political regime, known as the Canovist System, was modeled on the British system by Cánovas del Castillo. It consisted of a parliamentary monarchy with two alternating parties: the Liberals and the Conservatives. However, this system was flawed. Both parties represented the bourgeoisie, excluding other groups, and parliamentary majorities were artificially created through electoral fraud.
The Canovist System initially comprised two main parties:
- The Conservative Party: Founded by Cánovas, it included former members of the Moderate Party and the Liberal Union. They supported a parliamentary monarchy controlled by a financial oligarchy (restricted suffrage), limited freedoms (press, association, assembly), the Church, and economic protectionism.
- The Liberal Party: Formed by Sagasta in 1880, it united liberals and radicals. While representing the same social class (the bourgeoisie), it had a broader base. They advocated for national sovereignty, universal male suffrage, expanded freedoms (including association and religion), anti-clericalism, and free trade.
The peaceful alternation of power was pre-arranged between the parties. Once a change was agreed upon, rigged elections ensured the desired outcome. This practice was known as turnismo.
Electoral Manipulation and the Role of Local Bosses
Both parties established networks to control elections. In Madrid, an oligarchy of influential politicians held sway. Provincial governors played a key role in provincial capitals. In counties, towns, and villages, local bosses with economic power and influence manipulated election results through voter intimidation, threats, extortion, and ballot tampering.
The 1876 Constitution and Its Ambiguity
The system operated under the 1876 Constitution, the longest-lasting in Spanish history until its suspension in 1923 by Primo de Rivera. It largely retained the moderate 1845 Constitution but incorporated some progressive elements from 1869. Its defining feature was its ambiguity, leaving many fundamental issues to be addressed by subsequent decrees. Cánovas aimed to prevent constitutional changes with each change in government.
Key aspects of the 1876 Constitution:
- Political Regime: A parliamentary monarchy with sovereignty shared between the King and the Cortes (Parliament).
- Executive Power: Resided with the King, who appointed ministers independently of the parliamentary majority.
- Legislative Power: Held by a bicameral Cortes. The Senate was appointed by the King, limiting the separation of powers. The Congress was elected, initially based on census suffrage, but transitioning to universal male suffrage in 1890 under Sagasta’s electoral law.
- Judicial Power: Resided with the judges.
- Declaration of Rights: Ambiguous, with rights governed by subsequent decrees, often restricted by conservatives and expanded by liberals.
Social rights were slow to be recognized, but Sagasta’s 1883 law on associations allowed for the organization of the labor movement. Freedom of expression, opinion, press, and assembly were subject to varying limitations. Public worship of non-Catholic religions was not permitted, restricting religious freedom.
Consolidation and Legacy of Alfonso XII’s Reign
Alfonso XII’s reign, cut short by his death at 28, saw the consolidation of the Canovist System. The Conservative Party dominated the government, except for 1881-1884 when the Liberal Party held power, initiating the practice of turnismo. During this period, the traditional military’s role in politics diminished, the Carlist and Cuban Wars ended, and a favorable international economic climate contributed to the consolidation of Spanish capitalism. Following Alfonso XII’s death, his widow, Maria Christina of Habsburg, assumed regency until their son, Alfonso XIII, came of age.