Spain’s Restoration Era: Crisis and Downfall (1898-1923)
The Crisis of the Restoration Era in Spain (1898-1923)
The Disaster of 1898 and the Onset of Crisis
The Restoration system aimed to resolve Spain’s issues through a “revolution from above.” This project ultimately failed because the sectors represented in power were unwilling to relinquish their political privileges or support any tax reform that would provide the state with sufficient resources to implement the regenerationist program.
Problems in Early 20th Century Spain
At the beginning of the 20th century, Spain faced four major problems:
- Cultural and economic backwardness compared to the rest of Europe.
- An unfair distribution of wealth that fueled the demands of the labor movement and agricultural laborers in an increasingly radicalized and divided society.
- A corrupt political regime where major institutions did not represent the people, and elections were manipulated by local bosses (caciques) and mayors under the direction of the Ministry of the Interior. Despite being called a democracy, the alternating of power between the dynastic parties was made possible by artificial means and had little connection to the political reality of society.
- An army, with its pride wounded by the defeat in Cuba, that was obsolete, had an excess of officers, and perceived peripheral nationalism as a threat to the concept of the homeland.
Impact of the 1898 Disaster
The loss of Spain’s overseas colonies was not an isolated incident in Europe, as other countries had experienced similar situations due to the imperialism of the major powers during the Second Industrial Revolution. For Spanish society, it was a great catastrophe and became known as the “Disaster.” In reality, it did not lead to an immediate collapse, as the monarchy continued, the dynastic parties continued to alternate in power, and the Treasury achieved some balance after the great expenses incurred in the colonial war.
However, the impact signified the gradual onset of a crisis of state power, which divided the parties of the regime and led to political instability. The system also had to cope with the political and ideological opposition of the labor movement and part of the urban middle classes. This sector embraced the criticism of political corruption launched by intellectuals of the Generation of ’98, who formed the base of the resurgence of the republican movement as the sole guarantor of the country’s recovery and modernization.
Regenerationist ideas, whose main proponent was Joaquín Costa, spread among politicians and the people. However, the message often lacked strong, clear, and democratic alternative proposals. Joaquín Costa’s influence waned after his death.
The Crisis of the Turn System and the Military Problem
Conservatives and Liberals continued to take turns in government despite the disappearance of the creators of the “Turno” system, Cánovas and Sagasta. Alfonso XIII ascended to the throne, marking the first failure of the Restoration system. Between 1902 and 1905, there were five conservative governments, and between 1905 and 1907, five liberal governments. This highlighted the internal divisions within both parties, motivated by the struggle for leadership.
The military felt betrayed by the politicians after the defeat of 1898, believing they were not allowed to fight to the end. The public blamed them for the outcome. The Head of Government, Montero Ríos, resigned, and his successor, Moret, yielded to the demands of the military. The military demanded a Law of Jurisdictions, under which crimes against the army and the country would fall under the jurisdiction of military courts. Moret’s government agreed to this law, which increased the military’s power over civilian authority.
Radical Catalan nationalists and republicans protested in Catalonia. The League, a coalition of Catalan nationalist forces, achieved a majority in Congress but eventually dissolved due to differing viewpoints and its electoral program. The Law of Jurisdictions was not repealed until the proclamation of the Second Republic.
The Crisis of the Pact of El Pardo
For five years, the dynastic parties made a final attempt to renew themselves and address the real problems of Spanish society. José Antonio Maura and Canalejas were the protagonists, and their failure plunged the Restoration system into a deeper crisis.
Maura’s Conservative Government
Maura’s conservative government ruled for nearly three years with a comprehensive reform program. It attempted to curb caciquismo, legitimize the political system, reform local administration and electoral law, decentralize power, and boost the economy. However, it faced distrust from the opposition and strong resistance within his own party. His efforts were cut short by the crisis of the Tragic Week.
Fighting between the Spanish army and Moroccan forces near the border of Melilla prompted the government to mobilize reservists, sparking a protest strike that spread throughout Spain. Armed clashes between workers and the army ensued, and many religious buildings were looted and burned. Harsh repression followed, culminating in the execution of five people after trials filled with irregularities. Waves of protest arose against Maura’s repressive policies.
Liberal Governments and the Rise of Social Unrest
Liberal governments used the situation to join leftist parties in demanding Maura’s resignation. The King dismissed Maura and appointed Moret as the head of government. The alliance of liberal parties did not disrupt the long-standing dynastic pact between Cánovas and Sagasta, known as the Pact of El Pardo, for alternating power.
After Moret’s brief rule, the King commissioned Canalejas to form a new cabinet. Canalejas attempted to implement a regeneration program that included the Law on Provincial Associations, state arbitration in labor disputes, the introduction of compulsory military service, limits on the expansion of religious orders, an educational program, and an agreement with France on the division of spheres of influence in Morocco. His work ended with his assassination by an anarchist.
The Period 1912-1918 and the Crisis of 1917
Following Canalejas’s death, the dynastic parties fell into internal division, with groups forming around opposing leaders. This decline of the system coincided with the great revolutionary upheaval of 1917, which involved the military, the parliament, and the workers.
An atmosphere of confrontation existed between aliadófilos (supporters of the Allies in World War I) and germanófilos (supporters of Germany), while Spain remained neutral. The aliadófilos were primarily from the political left, admirers of France or the UK, and part of the big bourgeoisie enriched by business with these countries. The germanófilos were mainly from the political right and the army.
The Military Crisis
The military crisis began with a protest movement within the military. Discontent arose among the garrisons on the peninsula due to the preferential treatment given to officers serving in Morocco, who received higher wages and promotions based on merit in the war. This was compounded by the army’s material precariousness and the military’s discredit of the dynastic politicians. The crisis culminated in the Defense Juntas, led by Colonel Benito Márquez, demanding that promotions be based solely on seniority and calling for salary increases. Military pressure brought down the liberal government of García Prieto. The government yielded to the military’s pressure and passed the Army Law, which aimed to maintain social order.
The Assembly of Parliamentarians and the General Strike
The second act of the great crisis was protagonized by the political class. The Cortes were closed, but a group of deputies and senators formed a Parliamentary Assembly in Barcelona and requested the convening of a Constituent Cortes. Law enforcement broke up the meeting, and the government ignored their request for reform, leading to distrust from the military.
The crisis deepened with the announcement of a general strike due to price increases caused by World War I. The strike was supported by the UGT, the CNT, and the PSOE. It spread throughout the country, resulting in serious clashes. Members of the strike committee were arrested on the second day.
The Decomposition of the System
This period was characterized by the fragmentation of the dynastic political parties and government instability. After the crisis of 1917, attempts were made to form various governments of national concentration, including leaders from all parties except those on the left and the Republicans. However, an understanding proved impossible, and these governments dissolved.
Social Upheaval
The problems of Catalan autonomy claims took a backseat as social unrest continued to rise. Social unrest was a common phenomenon throughout Spain following the Russian Revolution. Agitation manifested not only in an increasing number of strikes and social conflicts but also in fighting between some sections of workers within the CNT and the Free Trade Union. During these years, there were attacks, including the assassination of Eduardo Dato, the President of the Government.
The War in Morocco
The political situation became further complicated in 1921 with the military disaster in Morocco. Spanish troops, led by Fernández Silvestre, were severely defeated by Moroccan independence fighters led by Abd-el-Krim and forced to flee. The Spanish occupation of Morocco, effective since the beginning of the 20th century, was a matter of honor for Spain, as it was the only place where Spanish colonialism remained after the loss of its overseas territories. However, it was economically unsustainable, and Berber tribes frequently attacked the Spanish.
The defeat further divided politicians and the Spanish public. An investigation into the incident, known as the Picasso Report, implicated the government, military officials, and the King.
The Coup d’état
The accumulation of serious problems that successive governments were unable to solve, along with growing criticism from Republican and leftist forces, led to the demise of the Restoration regime. On September 13, 1923, Primo de Rivera staged a coup in Barcelona, declared a state of war, and suspended the 1876 Constitution. The King endorsed the coup and appointed Primo de Rivera as president of a military and civilian board that ruled the country for seven years.