Spain’s Restoration: From Monarchy to Universal Suffrage
The Restoration in Spain (1874-1902)
The Regency of Serrano and the Return of the Monarchy
Following General Pavia’s coup and the dissolution of the courts in 1874, a provisional government, essentially a dictatorship under Serrano, was established. This government focused on suppressing the Cantonalist rebellion, leading to the cancellation of the Republican opposition and the banning of workers’ associations. However, Serrano’s position weakened as support for Alfonso grew. On December 1st, Alfonso signed the Manifesto of Sandhurst, which guaranteed a constitutional monarchy based on dialogue. This paved the way for Cánovas to restore the monarchy peacefully, without military intervention. However, Generals Jovellar and Martínez Campos declared their support for the monarchy on December 29th. The government resigned, and Cánovas formed a regency cabinet, announcing Alfonso’s proclamation as king.
Cánovas appointed new monarchist governors and mayors and implemented repressive measures against the opposition (excluding progressives and moderates). He also secured financial contributions from the Church to the State. The final campaign against the Carlists concluded with their surrender in March 1876 (Somorrostro). Despite this defeat, Carlism persisted. The end of the war allowed troops to be sent to Cuba, and through a combination of effective negotiation and military leadership, the Peace of Zanjón was achieved, ending the rebellion in 1878 in exchange for conditions that would later be broken.
Cánovas’ Political System
Cánovas’ political system was based on three main pillars:
- Establishing the monarchy firmly: This involved restoring the prestige lost under Isabella II and sharing sovereignty with the courts.
- Creating a constitutional framework: This framework aimed to accommodate all liberal factions (liberals, democrats, unionists, and moderates) on the condition that they accepted the monarchy and the turnismo system (alternation of power between two major parties).
- Restoring the army’s constitutional role: The army was to return to its barracks and fulfill its constitutional mission of maintaining social order, ensuring peaceful access to government, and upholding a civil political system.
Cánovas drew inspiration from the British parliamentary system, with two major parties alternating in power. The system was highly conservative in its political, economic, and social aspects. Its policies focused on defending social order, property rights, and the monarchy. Cánovas viewed the previous period as one of chaos and anarchy, and the new regime was widely endorsed. Elections for a constituent parliament were called with universal suffrage, but the electoral process was manipulated.
The Constitution of 1876
The Constitution of 1876 was a flexible text, lacking rigidity. However, its inspiration was doctrinaire and conservative. It included a comprehensive bill of rights and duties, which could be restricted by ordinary laws. Sovereignty was shared between the Cortes (parliament) and the King. The Cortes was bicameral, consisting of the Senate (with senators by their own right, by royal appointment, and elected by the largest taxpayers and corporations) and the Congress of Deputies (elected by direct suffrage). Executive power was exercised by the Crown through ministers, with the King choosing the head of government. Centralism was reinforced, and Basque privileges were abolished. Regarding religion, the Constitution recognized Catholicism as the state religion, guaranteeing the maintenance of worship and the clergy in exchange for freedom of belief in private (always in accordance with Catholic morals).
The Conservative Party and the Liberal Party
The Conservative Party, led by Cánovas, based its program on social order, the monarchy, and property rights. The party abolished Basque privileges to achieve political and legal uniformity. The policy of restricting freedoms was maintained and intensified (censorship, attacks on the monarchy, restrictions on academic freedom, etc.). In 1878, a very limited suffrage was established.
In 1880, the Liberal Party was founded, formed from the old Progressive Party under the leadership of Sagasta. Cánovas resigned in 1881, giving way to Sagasta’s government, which took steps to end restrictions on freedom of expression. However, only timid reforms were carried out, as the party was not entirely cohesive. Protests and even attempted pronouncements arose, to which Sagasta responded with harsh repression.
The Turnismo System and Its Distortion
By 1885, it was clear that the functioning of the Constitution was experiencing a clear distortion. Governments changed not due to electoral results but when they experienced wear and tear in their management. The new government was always formed by the president of the former opposition party. The newly appointed Minister of the Interior manipulated election results through the network of caciques (local political bosses). The certainty that participating in elections was futile caused a progressive indifference to political life. However, from the last decade of the century, the establishment of universal male suffrage facilitated the emergence of “parties outside the turn.”
The Regency of Maria Christina and the Pact of El Pardo
In November 1885, Alfonso XII died, leaving his second wife, Maria Christina of Austria, as regent. To ensure the stability of the regime, Cánovas and Sagasta signed the Pact of El Pardo, committing to support and facilitate the regency over the government without establishing the rules of the previous turnismo system. Both parties complied with the agreement, and Maria Christina also respected the decisions of the governments. However, the Pact of El Pardo exacerbated popular discontent and political corruption.
The Liberal Party and Universal Male Suffrage
Between 1885 and 1890, the Liberal Party ruled during the “Long Parliament,” with a political agenda of greater openness (academic freedom, freedom of expression, freedom of association, etc.). The most important reform came in 1890 with the firm establishment of universal male suffrage.
The Conservatives, the Cuban War, and the End of an Era
Between 1890 and 1902, the Conservatives ruled. The most significant event during this period was the Tariff Law of 1891. The Liberals returned to government in late 1892, and Sagasta led a project to reform the administration and government of Cuba, which was eventually withdrawn. Months later, in 1895, an insurrection broke out, marking the beginning of the Cuban War. The loss of Cuba and the Philippines, among other consequences, led to the decline of both political parties, particularly Sagasta’s, as he had to face defeat. This marked the end of the first generation of leaders of the Restoration.
In March 1899, Silvela formed a conservative government focused on political regeneration. However, internal divisions, an attempt to reduce spending, and tax reform ended the project. In May 1902, Alfonso XIII reached the legal age and was proclaimed king.