Spain’s Revolutionary Sexenio: From Monarchy to Republic (1868-1874)
Revolutionary Sexenio (1868-1874)
The Revolutionary Sexenio spans from the overthrow of Isabel II in 1868 to the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy with Alfonso XII. This period witnessed three distinct forms of government: a constitutional monarchy, a federal republic, and a unitary republic.
The 1868 Revolution
The revolution began on September 19th in Cádiz, led by the Navy and Generals Prim, Serrano, and Dulce. The uprising spread through Andalusia, forcing Isabel II into exile in France.
In October 1868, a provisional government was formed under Serrano, with Prim as a key figure. They called for elections by universal suffrage to form a Constituent Cortes. The 1868 elections resulted in a monarchist victory. Serrano was appointed regent, and Prim was tasked with forming a government and finding a new king for Spain while the Cortes drafted a new constitution.
The 1869 Constitution
The Constitution, promulgated on July 1, 1869, established Spain as a democratic constitutional monarchy. Key principles included:
- National sovereignty
- A bill of rights
- A bicameral legislature (Congress and Senate)
Executive power was vested in the king, exercised through ministers. The judiciary’s independence was guaranteed, trial by jury was established, and freedom of worship was recognized. However, women were denied voting rights. With the Constitution adopted, Prim’s government focused on finding a suitable Catholic and democratic king, ultimately choosing Amadeo of Savoy.
Challenges and Instability
Social unrest persisted, fueled by republican dissatisfaction with the monarchy and the resurgence of Carlism, led by Charles VII. The Cuban problem also came to the forefront with the “Grito de Yara” and the ensuing Ten Years’ War.
Prim was assassinated in 1870, and Amadeo ascended to the throne shortly after. His reign was marked by instability due to:
- Domestic problems: Carlists and Republicans
- Opposition: Moderates loyal to the Bourbons, led by Canovas del Castillo, who began preparing for Alfonso’s return
Amadeo abdicated on February 11, 1873, after six governments and three elections in just two years.
The First Republic (1873-1874)
Following Amadeo’s abdication, the Cortes proclaimed the First Republic. However, the Republicans were divided into Unitarians and Federalists, the latter further split into benevolent and uncompromising factions. In June 1873, the Federal Republic was proclaimed, with Pi i Maragall as president.
Pi i Maragall’s government attempted to create a federal state with a constitution similar to that of 1869 but organizing Spain into 17 federal states, including Cuba and Puerto Rico. This structure was short-lived due to insurrections in Levante and Andalusia. Pi i Maragall resigned and was replaced by Nicolás Salmerón.
End of the Republic
General Pavia ended the insurrections with force. Salmerón resigned, and Emilio Castelar became the fourth president, adopting a conservative and authoritarian approach. The Cantonalist revolt ended in 1873. Castelar assumed extraordinary powers and closed the Cortes until January 2nd. He reorganized the army and achieved military successes against the Carlists and Cantonalists. However, he lost a confidence vote to the Federalists when the Cortes reopened. That same night, the Guardia Civil staged a coup led by General Pavia.
Restoration of the Monarchy
The First Republic was effectively ended by Pavia’s coup, although a provisional government under Serrano remained. Serrano failed to defeat the Carlists, who remained active until 1876. Antonio Canovas del Castillo orchestrated the return of the Bourbons, securing Isabel II’s abdication in favor of her son, Alfonso XII. His aim was a peaceful restoration. However, Martinez Campos’s 1874 proclamation in favor of Prince Alfonso accelerated the monarchy’s return through a military coup.