Spain’s Revolutionary Sexennium & the 1868 Glorious Revolution
The Revolutionary Sexennium (1868-1874)
The Sexenio Democrático, or Revolutionary Sexennium, was one of the most turbulent periods recorded in Spanish history. Politically, various forms of government were tested, ultimately ending with the Restoration of the Bourbon monarchy under Alfonso XII, son of Isabel II.
The ‘Glorious Revolution’ of 1868
Causes of the Revolution
In September 1868, the so-called “Glorious Revolution” (La Gloriosa) erupted, beginning with a military uprising in Cádiz that gained popular support in many Spanish cities, leading to victory for the revolutionaries. This was caused by the exhaustion and unpopularity of the Moderates and the monarchy of Isabel II. The revolution succeeded because numerous interests converged. Besides the political groups involved in the conspiracy, it was supported by financial and industrial sectors who were aware that the Elizabethan government was incapable of overcoming the economic crisis. Regarding the popular classes, in addition to unemployment and poverty, promises made by the conspirators once again influenced them: universal suffrage, abolition of indirect taxes (consumption), abolition of military conscription (the ‘quinta’, an unjust system excluding the sons of wealthy families), and elections for a Constituent Assembly.
Economic Crisis (from 1866)
An economic crisis had been dragging on since 1866, encompassing:
- A financial crisis, caused by the realization that railway investments were not profitable.
- A serious industrial crisis, especially in Catalonia, since the U.S. Civil War (1861-65) had halted its exports of raw cotton, causing prices to skyrocket.
- A severe subsistence crisis, caused by drought and crop failures, which brought famine and starvation due to the high price of wheat, the staple food.
Political Decline
- Isabel II‘s alliance with the Moderates, which was unpopular.
- The emergence of the Democratic Party.
- Political discontent culminated in the Pact of Ostend.
The Revolutionary Process: ‘La Gloriosa’ 1868
The Glorious Revolution was not initially a popular uprising but rather one of the military coups (pronunciamientos) typical of the era. It was led by generals such as Serrano, Prim, Topete, and Ros de Olano, among others, and triumphed quickly as military units joined the uprising. Popular support followed when local and provincial boards (juntas) were organized by political parties, distributing weapons to the populace and organizing the so-called ‘Volunteers of Freedom’.
Prim joined the rebels and quickly gained the support of the people of Cádiz. Revolutionary juntas were rapidly established in many Spanish cities, staging the uprising and appealing to the people. The slogans were similar everywhere: universal suffrage, abolition of conscription, abolition of consumption taxes (replaced by a direct tax), and elections for a Constituent Assembly—these helped secure popular cooperation with the coup.
The government and the Crown were isolated, supported only by those who directly benefited from its policies, and by 1868, these were few. Furthermore, the Queen’s unconditional support for the Moderate cabinet tied her fate to theirs. When the few troops loyal to the government were defeated at the Bridge of Alcolea, the government saw no alternative but to resign. Isabel II went into exile in France on September 29, 1868.
During those initial weeks, power effectively lay with the Revolutionary Juntas and the popular movement, which demanded significant political democracy (universal suffrage; freedom of expression, assembly, association, and religion) and social reforms (confiscation of church lands, abolition of the quinta and consumption taxes). However, it soon became clear that the 1868 revolution encompassed several different revolutionary aims, and the one that would prevail belonged to Prim (Progressive) or Serrano (Liberal Union), whose primary objective—overthrowing the government—had already been achieved.
Thus, in early October, a Provisional Government was formed, with Prim and Serrano as the strongmen. It ordered the dissolution of the juntas, curbed the democratic aspirations of the revolutionary movement (demanding the return of weapons from the ‘Volunteers of Freedom’), and issued instructions for appointing new provincial councils to ensure political control over the country.