Spain’s Second Republic: Reforms and Challenges (1931-1936)
Phases of the Republic
- Reform or Social Biennium (December 1931 – November 1933), also known as the Left Biennium
- Radical-CEDA Biennium (November 1933 – February 1936), also known as the Right Biennium
- Popular Front (February – July 1936)
Reform Biennium (1931-1933)
The attempt to democratize the constitution and the Second Republic was blocked by Franco’s dictatorship. The new government, representing the new democratic forces united in opposition to the monarchy (Republicans, Nationalists, Socialists), was in the hands of the petty bourgeoisie, who lacked political experience. One of their first acts was to draft a new constitution to develop the new political regime. Power was held by the Left (Socialists and Republicans).
They had to solve the problems of Spain. Given their opposition, some thought their measures were too fast, while others thought they were too slow. The president was Alcalá Zamora, and the head of government was Manuel Azaña. The problems faced were:
The Religious Problem
This issue took the most support from the government. The government gave a secular nature to the regime, aiming to secularize social life because the Church was seen as an obstacle to modernization. The extinction of the clergy and worship budget was enacted within two years, and religious orders were subjected to a special law. This generated opposition from Cardinal Segura. Laws and decrees were enacted, such as the dissolution of the Society of Jesus and confiscation of their property, secularization of cemeteries, civil marriage and divorce, and a ban on religious orders teaching. They closed their schools. This meant a constant state of opposition between the Church and the Republic, ending with the expulsion of Cardinal Segura (anti-Republican). The Church did not lose its internal force, intervening in the political game through Acción Popular. The mobilization of Catholics and the Church was one of the reasons that contributed to the political recovery of the Right. Anticlericalism manifested in the streets, with uncontrolled groups burning churches and monasteries in the cities. The government did not react in time, and many Catholics moved away from the Republic.
The Military Problem
There was civil contempt for power. Primo de Rivera had given them more power. There was dissatisfaction with the salary and promotion system, which workers did not understand. Azaña tried to modernize the army, which was opposed by a sector led by Sanjurjo.
The Azaña Act aimed to create a professional army, end the special privileges of the military, and ensure their obedience to civilian authority and the Republic. The “Law of Official Retirement” admitted the withdrawal, with full pay, of all generals and officers who would not swear allegiance to the Republic, but not many of the officers were monarchists. The Assault Guards were created as a Republican city police force.
The Agrarian Problem
Largo Caballero addressed the pending land reform, requiring landowners to give priority to local laborers. Landowners reacted against this by creating the National Association of Farm Owners. The reform consisted of several projects that went to Parliament in 1932. The above measures, in 1931, were intended to prevent insurrection in the countryside. These measures included the freezing of rents and the 8-hour workday. The Agrarian Reform Act provided for the expropriation of large estates that were not cultivated by their owners, uneducated, or non-irrigated. Expropriation without compensation was applied to the nobles and those who had participated in the Sanjurjo uprising. Enforcement was entrusted to the Institute of Agrarian Reform (IRA). The IRA depended on provincial and rural communities, which decided to run the business individually or collectively. The reform was too slow, causing disappointment among farmers who withdrew their support for the government and increased conflict. This influenced the left-wing coalition against the CNT and the landlords, who organized to fight.
The Social Problem
Labor strikes, like that of the CNT telephone workers, became a challenge to the Republic. They became radicalized, dominated by the FAI, aiming to make the revolution. There were a large number of unemployed workers due to the crisis of 1929.
Caballero, as Minister of Labor, implemented measures such as maximum recruitment days, mixed juries, a law on accidents in agriculture, and regulation of the right to strike. He tried to generalize social insurance but lacked the budget.
Given this stance, trade unions took action. The UGT was divided into two trends: Prieto wanted slow development, while Caballero wanted fast reforms to prevent the progress of the CNT. There was violent opposition from the right. Anarchists were also divided into two tendencies: those who did not accept any type of program (anarcho-syndicalists) and the unionists, ready to wait (Pestaña and Peiró). They held a violent opposition against the Republic.
The Regional Problem
In Barcelona, the Republic was proclaimed hours before Madrid by Macià (Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya). The government in Madrid sent two Catalan ministers, Nicolau d’Olwer and Marcelino Domingo, with the aim of changing the name of the State to the Catalan Generalitat.
The Courts approved the Catalan Statute of Autonomy, making Catalonia an autonomous region within the Spanish State. It was headed by a president, a parliament, and an Executive Council (Generalitat) with legislative and executive powers in Finance, Economy, Education, Culture, Transport, and Communications. Tax administration and public order were shared with the central government. The Madrid government reserved the army and foreign affairs. Castilian and Catalan were declared co-official languages. The first president, Macià, formed a government with only Esquerra Republicana but collaborated with Socialists. Companys succeeded him when he died.
In the Basque Country and Navarra, the regional problem was delayed by the lack of agreement among Basque political forces. The confessional nature of the PNV strongly hindered negotiations.
Other regions initiated proceedings but did not succeed because the war broke out.
Education and Culture
The objective was to promote liberal and secular education, promoting culture as a means of modernizing the country. The Republic faced a high rate of illiteracy (over 30%) and a lack of enrollment for nearly half the child population. Building projects for school places were halted by a lack of budget. Yet, in two years, 13,000 classrooms were created, compared to the 35,000 that existed, and 7,000 places for teachers. A model of mixed, compulsory, and free schooling was adopted. Other interesting projects were the Free Educational Institution, the Board of Advanced Studies to modernize the university, and the expansion of secondary education (in the number of schools and pupils). Mobile libraries, movie theaters, choirs, and lectures (teaching assignments) were also created.