Spain’s Sexenio Democrático: Revolution to Republic
Economic and Political Crisis at the End of Isabel II’s Reign
The end of Queen Isabel II’s reign was marked by a severe economic crisis, stemming from several factors:
- Financial Crisis: The collapse of railway company shares listed on the stock market.
- Industrial Crisis: Primarily affecting the Catalan textile industry.
- Agricultural Crisis: Caused by low wheat production.
Adding to the economic woes was a political crisis. The Queen consistently favored the Moderate Party, leading other political groups to sign the Pact of Ostend in 1867. This pact saw the Progressive Party, Democrats, and Republicans unite against the Moderate Party and the throne itself. The Liberal Union joined the pact soon after.
The Revolution of September 1868
The uprising began on September 19, 1868, with a mutiny led by Brigadier Topete in a part of the war fleet stationed in Cadiz. General Prim and General Serrano quickly joined the revolt. This was accompanied by a series of riots in major cities of southern Spain, involving Republicans, the military, and the poor.
The Marques de Novaliches sent troops loyal to the Queen to quell the riots. These troops clashed with the rebel army at the Battle of Alcolea, where the Queen’s forces were defeated. Topete, Prim, and Serrano, the three military commanders involved in the riots, established an interim government, ruling as a military triumvirate.
The interim government’s first actions included dissolving the revolutionary juntas and the national militia. A provisional government was established, with General Serrano as regent. Topete retired from politics, and Prim became head of government. Prim was tasked with finding a suitable candidate for the Spanish throne among European courts. Elections were called for a constituent assembly to draft a new constitution.
The 1869 Constitution
This constitution was based on the principles of rational liberalism, recognizing broad rights and freedoms:
- Freedom of education
- Freedom of assembly
- Freedom of the press
- Inviolability of domicile
- Freedom of printing
The structure of the state was a monarchy, but the King’s authority was largely symbolic. Power was divided as follows:
- Legislative power: Parliament
- Executive power: Government
- Judicial power: Independent judges and courts
The Cortes (Parliament) consisted of the Congress and Senate, elected by universal male suffrage for those over 25 years old. Overseas provinces (Cuba and Puerto Rico) were to be granted the same rights as the Spanish. Religious freedom was established, although a budget was allocated for the clergy.
The interim government shifted from a protectionist to a free-trade economic policy. The peseta was established as the monetary unit for all of Spain, subsidies were granted to railroads, and mining concessions were made possible.
The Reign of Amadeo I (1870-1873)
The idea of cantonalism spread, with some cities declaring themselves independent cantons, such as Cartagena, where part of the navy joined them. Prim found a suitable candidate for the throne in Amadeo of Savoy. However, three days before Amadeo was named King, Prim was assassinated. Amadeo I was proclaimed King on January 2, 1871. Shortly after, the Cortes were dissolved, and new elections were called.
Amadeo I’s reign was short-lived, lasting from 1870 to 1873. Those who had held power during Isabel II’s reign opposed the new King, fearing the loss of their influence. He also faced opposition from the people, large capitalists, and the upper echelons of the Church.
Amadeo I had to contend with two wars:
- The Third Carlist War: Carlist uprisings against Isabel II continued, though their leader, Charles III, never gained significant support.
- The Cuban War of Independence: Beginning in 1868 with the Cry of Yara, this conflict, also known as the Ten Years’ War, was exacerbated by supporters of Isabel II on the island who feared the spread of riots.
Amadeo abdicated in 1873, leading to the proclamation of the First Spanish Republic.
The First Spanish Republic (1873-1874)
The Republic faced numerous challenges from its inception:
- Doubts about its legality
- International isolation
- Many who voted for the Republic favored the return of the Bourbons
- The Carlist and Cuban wars continued
The main party supporting the Republic was the PRF (Federal Republican Party). The first president, Estanislao Figueras, resigned after a few weeks. He was succeeded by Francisco Pi i Margall, who was also the president of the PRF. The 1873 Constitution transformed Spain into a federal state composed of 17 cantons.
Spain had three levels of power:
- Municipal Power: Town Halls
- Cantonal Power: Cantons
- Federal Power: Federation of Cantons
Francisco Pi i Margall faced numerous problems, including the Carlist War, the Cuban revolt, and the revolt of some cantons. He resigned and was replaced by Nicolás Salmerón, who faced a death sentence he had to sign but opposed. He resigned rather than sign it. Emilio Castelar was elected as his successor. On January 3, General Pavia staged a military coup to keep Castelar in power, but Castelar refused to rule under such circumstances.
General Serrano, with the army’s support, became President of the Republic and ruled for almost a year. Prince Alfonso, son of Isabel II, signed a manifesto written by Cánovas del Castillo, aiming to win the sympathy of the Spanish people. In 1875, he became King Alfonso XII.