Spain’s Transformation (1833-1843): From Regency to Reign
The death of Fernando VII in 1833 ushered in a transformative period in Spanish history, marked by evolving political, economic, social, and cultural landscapes. During the reign of his daughter, Isabel II (Elizabeth II), Spain transitioned from the Old Regime to bourgeois liberalism. A constitutional monarchy, grounded in liberal principles, was established, laying the foundation for a capitalist economy and a new class-based society, replacing the old estates system.
Unlike other European nations where a strong bourgeoisie championed liberalism, Spain’s bourgeoisie was weak. The monarchy, therefore, relied on the military, the only force capable of defending against Carlist threats.
Upon Fernando VII’s death, his widow, Maria Cristina, became regent until Isabel, born in 1833, came of age. However, Charles’s supporters, staunch absolutists, rejected this arrangement, sparking a civil war that lasted until the 1839 Convention of Vergara. Carlist uprisings would continue throughout the century.
This conflict had significant consequences beyond its human cost:
- The monarchy’s embrace of liberalism.
- The military’s increasing political influence, with generals often leading political parties. Coups became common throughout Isabel II’s reign.
- The war’s financial burden placed the monarchy in dire fiscal straits, influencing reforms like the Mendizábal confiscation.
Isabel II’s reign was characterized by alternating progressive and moderate governments, further destabilized by ongoing military uprisings.
Early in her reign, the first political parties emerged, representing different strands of liberalism:
- The Moderate Party, led by Narváez, drew support from large landowners, the gentry, and the upper middle class. They advocated for shared sovereignty between the monarch and Parliament, granting the king broad powers and limiting individual rights.
- The Progressive Party, led by General Espartero, whose popularity stemmed from his role in the First Carlist War, found support among the small and middle bourgeoisie, employees, and artisans. They championed national sovereignty vested in Parliament, which should limit the king’s power.
Isabel II’s minority was overseen by two regencies: her mother, Maria Cristina (1833-1840), and General Baldomero Espartero (1840-1843).
The First Regency: Maria Cristina (1833-1840)
The early years of Maria Cristina’s regency saw moderate liberals gain political ground. The Royal Statute of 1834 reformed the Cortes, making it bicameral.
Both chambers had more advisory than legislative power, as they were summoned, suspended, and dissolved by the monarch and could only discuss matters raised by the crown.
The civil war and a dire economic situation in 1835 led to urban unrest and militias, necessitating expanded political freedoms, electoral reform, and a shift towards progressive politics.
In 1836, an army revolt forced Maria Cristina to reinstate the 1812 Constitution. However, a new constitution, the Constitution of 1837, was quickly drafted.
This constitution echoed the Cádiz Constitution: national sovereignty, broader citizen rights, separation of powers (legislative, judicial, and executive), and limits on monarchical power. To appease moderates, it incorporated elements of the Royal Statute, such as the monarch’s power to summon and dissolve the Cortes and veto laws. The Cortes remained bicameral, with an appointed Senate and an elected Congress of Deputies. However, census-based suffrage limited voting rights to a small percentage of the population.
Under this constitution, progressive laws were enacted, including the abolition of tithes, internal customs, and guilds.
Steps were taken to liberalize the land market: abolishing entails and the feudal regime, and confiscating church and municipal lands for public auction.
In 1835, religious orders (except those dedicated to education or patient care) were dissolved, and their properties nationalized.
The Mendizábal Confiscation (1837) involved auctioning off expropriated church lands. Its aims were to stabilize the treasury, fund the Carlist War, and create supporters of the liberal cause. However, it strained relations between the Church and the liberal state.
After the Carlist War, a moderate government under Pérez de Castro attempted to roll back reforms and limit the participation of the urban middle class. A municipal law revoked the right to elect mayors, sparking liberal revolts and prompting the regent to call upon General Espartero. The law’s suspension and the dissolution of Parliament forced Maria Cristina’s resignation, paving the way for Espartero’s regency.
Regency II: General Espartero (1840-1843)
Espartero ruled dictatorially until 1843, suppressing moderates and ignoring Parliament.
His free trade policies threatened Catalan industry, leading to widespread opposition. Basques, resentful of his anti-Carlist stance, joined the Catalan resistance. Even some progressive liberals, initially supportive of Espartero, turned against his authoritarianism.
In 1843, a military revolt led by Narváez ousted Espartero, who was exiled to London. He would not return to Spain until 1849.
To avoid another regency, the Cortes declared Isabel II of age, crowning her queen at thirteen.